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The early modern era of world history gave birth to what two trends?
1) spread of christianity to asians, africans, and native americans 2) emergence of a scientific outlook
How was Christianity divided in Europe
Roman Catholic of West, Eastern Orthodox of East
How was the Christian world defensive against expansive Islam?
Muslims had ousted Christian Crusaders from the holy land, and with the Ottoman seizure of Constantinople, they had captured the capital of Eastern Orthodoxy. The Ottoman siege of Vienna marked a muslim advance into the heart of Central Europe.
What was the Protestant Reformation and how did it begin?
shattered the unity of Roman Catholic Christianity, began with German Priest (Martin Luther), who wrote the Ninety-five theses that criticized the corruption of modern church
What made Luther's protest potentially revolutionary?
It's theological basis- believed salvation came through faith alone
What did the protestant movement have in it for the kings and princes? What about middle class?
gain the lands and taxes previously held by the church. new religious legitimacy for role in society and expressed their opposition to the entire social order
What did the protestant reformation do to woman's roles
not much to offer women except (maybe) higher education and literacy rates that were useless because they were not given any opportunities to use their knowledge
What contributed to the spread of reformation thinking?
the printing press
What was the edict of Nantes and who were the Huguenots?
it was an edict that issued substantial religious toleration to french protestants, wight eh intention that they would return to the catholic church. however the huguenotes (protestants) ended up as a part of the thirty years war that began in the HRE. peace of westphalia brought end of conflict
what did the reformation foster?
religious individualism
How did Christianity motivate European political and economic expansion?
The Catholic spanish and portuguese viewed their overseas movement as a continuation of crusading tradition
Where did missionaries have their greatest success? Why?
Spanish America and in the Philippines - because of overwhelming european prescence (e.g. military conquest, missionary activity, forced labor) and the absence of a literate world religion
how did europeans view their political and military success (esp over the Aztec and Incas)?
as a demonstration of the power of the Christian God- vast majority of natives saw themselves in some respect as Christians
What did Christianity in Spanish America do to the role of women?
had no role in catholic church and lowered their authority, convent life was largely reserved for Spanish women only
How were Europeans different than earlier conquerers in Spanish America?
earlier conquerers had made no attempt to eradicate local deities and religious practices. Europeans claimed exclusive religious truth and utter destruction of local gods
What sometimes happened with European efforts to demolish native religions?
Boiled over into violent campaigns to uproot old religion- which generated resistance (e.g. Taki Onqoy movement in Peru with dancers)
What did some Andeans do with two religions? What about Mexican Christianity?
tried to blend in two religious traditions- syncretism. Mexican christianity did this, saints similar to precolonial gods, rituals from past, sacrifices, candles (from christianity)
How was the Chinese encounter with Christianity different from that of Native Americans?
Political context- Spanish america's people were defeated and societies disrupted. China- encountered Christianity during prosperous Ming and Qing
How did Christianity spread in China? Through what?
Spanish missionaries tried to convert masses, and Jesuits too aim at Chinese elite. They downplayed conversion and emphasized conversion. Jesuits had secular knowledge
And how did the religious and cultural outcomes of the missionary enterprise in China differ from Spanish America?
No mass conversion occurred in China, as it had in Latin America. Modest number of Chinese scholar and officials converted, but spread very modestly amongst commoners.
Why was Christianity so limited in China?
the missionaries offered little that the chinese really wanted- monogamy as well required men to get rid of concubines. Too much of an all-or-nothing faith for them
What was a major turning point in the relationship of Christian missionaries and Chinese society?
The papacy opposed Jesuit policy of accommodation, claimed authority of Chinese Christians, and accused them of "idolatry"- this outraged the people
What else challenged the view of Chinese missionaries?
discredited by Chinese scholars because they worked for the Qing (seen as illegitimate), reputation as miracle workers damaged their standing as men of science (for elite Chinese viewed miracles as superstitions), some viewed Holy Communion as cannibalism, and suspicion that the missionaries were subversive or spies
How did conversion to Islam usually take place across the Afro-Eurasian world?
did not typically mean abandonment of old religious practices, instead it was more assimilation of Islam into local religious systems
If Islamization was not usually the product of conquering armies and expanding empires, then how did it occur?
Sufis, Islamic scholars, and traders, none of whom posed a threat to local rulers. Sometimes these people were actually useful to rulers- offered literacy in Arabic, established informal schools, advisers, healers, intermarriage, etc.
What did Islamization across Afro-Eurasia offer?
connection to the wider, prestigious, prosperous world of Islam
What was Islam like on the Islands of Southeast Asia?
there was diversity, syncretism, sometimes women were successful and sometimes were not, religion was accommodating, meanwhile merchants were orthodox.
How did refusal of religious syncretism from orthodox muslims play a role in the Islamic world?
leaders sharply criticized those practices not directly from Muhammad and from Quran. India (Mughal)- religious resistance to official policies that accommodated Hindus. Wahhabi movement
What was the Wahhabi movement and what did it stand for?
weakening of Ottoman empire, he argued, were directly related to deviations from the pure faith. He was upset by idolatry. This movement soon became an expansive state.
What did the Wahhabi movement do to the role of women?
It typically emphasized the rights of women within a patriarchal framework
What did the Ming and Qing dynasty continue to operate with typically?
Neo-Confucianism. Ming- because they hated the Mongols, Qing- to woo Chinese intellectuals to support the new dynasty.
How did some Chinese religious reformation relate to Martin Luther?
Chinese scholars started to argue that you didn't need Confucianism to achieve a virtuous life- promoted individualism (some think excessive)
What was another new movement in Chinese elite culture?
"Kaozheng"- research based on evidence. it was critical of Confucianism and emphasized the importance of accuracy and precision. this emphasis generated works dealing with agricultural, medicine, etc in Ming and recovery of historical documents in Qing
What was a difference between Kaozheng and what was going on in the West?
it was applied more towards the study of the past than the natural world of astronomy, physics, or anatomy, which was more the focus in the west.
How were Hindus and Muslims brought together in the Mughal Empire amongst the elite?
formed a state cult that combined Hinduism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism. Also embraced Renaissance Christian art
How were Hindus and Muslims brought together in the Mughal Empire regarding popular culture?
form of Hinduism called Bhakti- direct contact with divine through songs, prayers, dances, poetry, rituals, etc. - just like Sufi muslims and set aside the caste restrictions of Hinduism, appealing to women
What is Sikhism and what did it do?
New religious tradition in Punjab, Northern India. Used to be Bhakti, but came to believe there is no Hindu or Muslim; only god. Ignored caste and ended seclusion of women. - military skills highly valued by the British when they later took over India
What was the scientific revolution? What did it do?
a vast intellectual and cultural transformation that took place between the mid-sixteenth and the early 18th centuries. - altered ideas about the place of humankind, challenged church, social hierarchies and political systems, and played a role in the revolutionary upheavals of the modern era.
What was bad about the scientific revolution?
It was used to legitimize racial and gender inequalities
Why did the Scientific Revolution take place in Europe?
It's historical development as a reinvigorated and fragmented civilization gave rise to conditions favorable to the scientific enterprise. - European's legal system and idea of "corporation", and most important- universities.
Why was science unpopular in the Islamic world?
Madrassas (Muslim colleges), philosophy and science viewed with suspicion.
How did the reformation contribute to the Scientific Revolution?
encouraged mass literacy and affirmed secular professions
What aided the diffusion of Scientific Revolution ideas?
printing, bookmaking, popular press, growing literacy, and by a host of scientific societies.
What is Enlightenment?
Time period in which there is a belief that the power of knowledge can transform human society.
What is Deism?
Faith that believes in a rather abstract and remote deity who had created the world, but does not intervene in history or tamper with natural law.
What is pantheism?
The belief that God and nature are identical- God could be "proven" by human rationality, logic, etc.
What was commonly debated about that spawned from ideas of the Enlightenment?
The role of women in society- some defended and some saw women as inferior.
What was the central theme of the Enlightenment?
the idea of progress
Were there any people who thought that the Enlightenment's reliance on human reason was too much? And if so, how did the Enlightenment affect religion?
Yes- e.g. the Methodist movement and various forms of "enlightened religion" - e.g. Quakers, Unitarians
How did European scientific thinking have an effect globally?
In the early modern era, interest in European thinking within major Asian societies was selective (e.g. telescope spread, but not much interest out of Europe), Qing dynasty emperors and scholars were most interested in European techniques from Jesuit missionaries (e.g. predicting eclipses, reforming the calendar) and it seemed compatible with the kaozheng movement.
How did the window remain open for Japan after the authorities largely closed their country off from the West?
The Dutch alone were permitted to trade in Japan, and soon ban was lifted off of European books- spread medicine, geography, math, etc.
How was science in the Ottoman Empire?
more interested in maps and calendars than philosophy, but science did face a struggle in the face of a conservative Islamic educational system.
How were the Atlantic Revolutions distinctive compared to upheavals elsewhere?
The costly wars that strained European imperial states- Britain, France, and Spain in particular- were global rather than regional. (e.g. Seven Year's war), they were closely connected to one another, and shared a set of common ideas.
Where were the ideas of the Atlantic revolutions derived from?
The European Enlightenment
What is "popular sovereignty?"
It means that the authority to govern is derived from the people rather than from God or from established tradition.
Who generally benefitted most from the Atlantic Revolutions?
white middle class men- women, slaves, native americans, and men without property didn't benefit much, but the ideas gave them ammunition for the future.
How was the American Revolution a conservative movement?
Because it originated in an effort to preserve the existing liberties of the colonies rather than to create new ones.
Why did the American Revolution grow?
It grew because of a sudden effort by the British government to tighten its control over the colonies and to extract more revenue from them.
What was so significant about the American Revolution?
it accelerated the established democratic tendencies of the colonial societies.
How did the French Revolution begin?
Began after the American Revolution, the French higher estates were on the brink of bankruptcy and tried to modernize tax system; didn't work out very well, and the third estate organized the National Assembly, which launched the French Revolution
How was the French Revolution different from the American Revolution?
American: expressed tensions with a distant imperial power, French: within French society- much more violent and radical, more like earlier Russian and Chinese revolutions in 20th cent. It also spread by conquest other Napoleon Bonaparte- created continent's largest empire since the Romans
What accompanied attacks on the old order during the French revolution?
attempts to create a wholly new society, symbolized by a new calendar
Why did Spanish colonies win their independence almost fifty years later than those of British North America?
1) Spanish colonies had long been governed in a rather more authoritarian fashion than their British counterparts 2) More sharply divided by class 3) whites throughout Latin America were outnumbered by other races
How did Britain benefit from the loss of its north american colonies?
it fueled growing interest and interventions ins Aisa, contributing to British colonial rule in India and the Opium wars in China.
What were three major rebellions in the British West Indies after the Haitian Revolution?
The Great Jamaica Revolt- prompted Britain to abolish slavery throughout the empire
What did the reluctance of former slaves to continue working in agriculture do?
created labor shortages and set in motion a huge new wave of global migration
What was different between the end of slavery in the Americas and the end of serfdom in Russia?
Russia transferred a considerable portion of the nobles' land to peasants, but the need to pay for this land and a growing population ensured that most peasants remained impoverished and politically volatile.
What is civic nationalism?
view that identifies nation with a particular territory and maintains that people of various cultural backgrounds can assimilate into the dominant culture (e.g. "becoming American")
What was the first country to give the right to vote to all adult women?
1893 New Zealand
