Human Geography AP TEST TERMS

absolute distance

A distance that can be measured with a standard unit of length

absolute location

exact position of an object or place on coordinate grid

accessibility

The relative ease with which a destination may be reached from some other place

anthropogenic

Human-induced changes on the natural environment

azimuthal projection

a map projection with the plane being the most developable surface

Carl Sauer

Geographer from UC Berkley who defined the concept of cultural landscape as the fundamental unit of geographical analysis. He argues that virtually no landscape has escaped alteration by human activities.

cartograms

A type of thematic map that transform space such that the political unit with the greatest value for some type of data is represented by the largest relative area

cartography

Theory and practice of making visual representations of the earth's surface in the form of maps.

choropleth map

a thematic map that uses tones or colors to represent spatial data as average values per unit area

cognitive map

An image of a portion of the earth's surface that a person creates in his or her mind. Cognitive maps can include knowledge of actual locations and relationships between locations as well as person exceptions and preferences of particular places.

complementarity

The actual or potential relationship between two places, usually referring to economic interactions.

connectivity

degree of economical, social, cultural, or political connection between two places

CONTAGIOUS DIFFUSION

The spread of a disease, innovation, or cultural traits through direct contact with another person or another place

coordiate system

standard grid with lines of latitude and longitude

CULTURAL ECOLOGY

study of the interactions between societies and the natural environments which they live

CULTURAL LANDSCAPE

human modified natural landscape specifically containing the imprint of a particular culture or society

DISTANCE DECAY EFFECT

decrease in interaction between two phenomena, places, or people as the distance between them increases

dot maps

thematic maps that use points to show the precise locations of specific observations or occurrences (crimes, car accidents, etc.)

earth system science

systematic approach to physical geography that looks at the interaction between Earth's physical systems and processes on a global scale

ENVIRONMENTAL GEOGRAPHY

THE INTERSECTION BETWEEN HUMAN AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, WHICH EXPLORES THE SPATIAL IMPACTS HUMANS HAVE ON THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENTS AND VICE VERSA.

eratosthenes

The head librarian at Alexandria during the third century B.C.; he was one of the first cartographers. Performed a remarkably accurate computation of the earth's circumference. He is also credited with coining the term "geography."

EXPANSION DIFFUSION

the spread of ideas, innovations, fashion, or other phenomenas to surrounding areas through contact and exchange.

fertile crescent

Name given to crescent-shaped area of fertile land stretching from the lower Nile valley, along the east Mediterranean coast, and into Syria and present-day Iraq where agriculture and early civilization first began about 8000 B.C.

formal region

defintion of regions based on common themes such as similarities in language, climate, etc.

FRICTION OF DISTANCE

A measure of how much absolute distance affects the interaction between two places

fuller projection

map projection which maintains accurate size and shape of landmasses but completely rearranges direction

functional region

definitions of regions based on common interaction (or function) for example, a boundary line drawn around the circulation of a particular newspaper.

Geographical Information System (GIS)

set of computer tools used to capture, store, transform, analyze, and display geographic data

gravity model

mathematical formula that describes the level of interaction between two places, based on the size of their populations and their distance from each other

HIERARCHICAL DIFFUSION

diffusion in which is transmitted between places because of a physical or cultural community between those places. This spreads as a result of the social elite (political leaders, athletes, and entertainers) spread social ideas and trends.

HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

STUDY OF SPATIAL VARIATION IN THE PATTERNS AND PROCESSES RELATED TO HUMAN ACTIVITY

international dateline

line of longitude that marks where each new day begins

INTERVENING OPPORTUNITIES

The idea that one place has a demand for some good or service and two places have a supply of equal price and quality, then the closer of the two suppliers to the buyer will represent an intervening opportunity, thereby blocking the third from being able to share its supply of goods or services. Intervening opportunities are frequently utilized because transportation costs usually decrease with proximity.

isoline

map line that connects points of equal or very similar values

large scale

small ratio between map units and ground units. usually have higher resolution and cover smaller regions

latitude

north to south. also known as parallels

law of retail gravitation

law stating that people will be drawn to larger cities to conduct their business since larger cities have a wider influence on the surrounding hinterlands

location charts

on a map, a chart or scale that gives specific statistical information about a particular political unit or jurisdiction.

longitude

east to west. also known as meridians

map projection

A mathematical method that involves transferring the earth's sphere onto a flat surface. This term can also be used to describe the type of map that results from the process of projecting. All map projections have distortions in either area, direction, distance, or shape.

map scale

ratio between size and area on a map and the actual size of the same area on Earth's surface

George Perkins Marsh

Inventor, diplomat, politician, and scholar, his classic work, Man and Nature, or Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action, provided the first description of the extent to which natural systems had been impacted by human actions.

mercator projection

A true conformal cylindrical map projection, it is particularly useful for navigation because it maintains accurate direction. famous for their distortion in area that makes landmasses at the poles appear oversized.

natural landscape

physical landscape or environment that has not been affected by human activities

nomothetic

concepts or rules that can be applied universally

perceptual region

highly individualized definitions of regions based on perceived commonalties in culture and landscape. also known as a vernacular region.

peters projection

An equal-area projection purposely centered on Africa in an attempt to treat all regions of Earth equally.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

THE REALM OF GEOGRAPHY THAT STUDIES THE STRUCTURES, PROCESSES, DISTRIBUTIONS, AND CHANGES THROUGH TIME OF THE NATURAL PHENOMENA OF EARTH'S SURFACE.

preference map

map that displays individual preferences for certain places

Prime Meridian

imaginary line passing through the Royal Observatory in greenwich, England, that marks the 0 degree line of longitude

Proportional symbols map

thematic map in which the size of a chosen symbol-- such as a circle or triangle-- indicates the relative magnitude of some statistical value for a given geographic region

Ptolemy

Roman geographer-astronomer and author of Guide to Geography which included maps containing a grid system of latitude and longitude.

quantitative revolution

A period in human geography associated with the widespread adoption of mathematical models and statistical techniques.

region

a territory that encompasses many places that share similar physical and/or cultural attributes

REGIONAL GEOGRAPHY

study of geographic regions

Relative Distance

measure of distance that includes the costs of overcoming the friction of absolute distance separating two places. Relative distance often describes the amount of social, cultural, or economic connectivity between two places

relative location

the position of a place relative to the places around it

Remote sensing

Observation and mathematical measurement of the earth's surface using aircraft and satellites. The sensors include both photographic images, thermal images, multispectral scanners, and radar images.

resolution

a map's smallest discernible unit.

Robinson projection

map projection in attempt to balance several possible projection errors. minimizes errors in each

sense of place

feelings evoked by people as a result of certain experiences and memories associated with a particular place

site

absolute location of a place

situation

relative location of a place in relation to the physical and cultural characteristics of the surrounding area and the connections and interdependencies within that system: a place's spatial context

small scale

a map scale ratio in which the ratio of units on the map to units on Earth is quite small. usually depict large areas

SPATIAL DIFFUSION

the ways in which phenomena travel over space

SPATIAL PERSPECTIVE

An intellectual framework that looks at the locations of specific phenomena, how and why that phenomena is , and, finally, how it is spatially related to phenomena in other places

sustainability

using earth's sources without diminishing earth's ability to provide for future generations

thematic layers

Individual maps of specific features that are overlaid on one another in a Geographical Information System to understand and analyze a spatial relationship.

thematic map

map that displays one or more variables

time-space convergence

The idea that distance between some places is actually shrinking as technolgy enables more rapid communication and increased interaction between those places.

topographic maps

maps that use isolines to represent constant elevations

topological space

amount of connectivity between places regardless of the absolute distance separating them

transferability

the costs involved in moving goods from one place to another

visualization

use of sophisticated software to create dynamic computer maps (even in 3d)

W.D. Pattison

claims geography drew from 4 distinct traditions: the earth-science tradition, the culture-environment tradition, the locational tradition, and the area-analysis tradition

Arithmetic Density

number of people living in a given unit area

baby boom

A cohort of individuals born in the United States between 1946 and 1964, which was just after World War II in a time of relative peace and prosperity. These conditions allowed for better education and job opportunities, encouraging high rates of both marriage and fertility.

baby bust

Period of time during the 1960s and 1970s when fertility rates in the United States dropped as large numbers of women from the baby boom generation sought higher levels of education and more competitive jobs, causing them to marry later in life. As such, the fertility rate dropped considerably, in contrast to the baby boom, in which fertility rates were quite high.

carrying capacity

the largest number of people that the environment of a particular area can sustainably carry

CHAIN MIGRATION

migration event in which individuals follow the migratory paths of preceding friends or family members to an existing community

cohort

a population group unified by a specific common characteristic, such as age, and subsequently treated as a statistical unit

cotton belt

The term by which the American South used to be known, as cotton historically dominated the agricultural economy of the region. The same area is now known as the New South or Sun Belt because people have migrated here from older cities in the industrial north for a better climate and new job opportunities.

crude birth rate

number of live births per year per 1,000 people

crude death rate

number of deaths per year per 1,000 people

Demographic accounting equation

summarizes the amount of growth or decline in a population within a country during that particular time period taking into account both natural increase and net migration

demographic transition model

sequence of demographic changes in which a country moves from high birth and death rates to low birth and death rates through time

DEMOGRAPHY

study of human populations, including their temporal and spatial dynamics

dependence ratio

ratio of the number of people who are either too old or young to provide for themselves to the number of people who must support them through their own labor. Usually expressed in the form n:100 where n equals the number of dependents.

doubling time

the time it takes for a population experiencing exponential growth to double in size completely

EMIGRATION

process of moving out of a particular country, usually the individual person's country of origin

EXPONENTIAL GROWTH

growth that occurs when a fixed percentage of new people is added to a population each year. Exponential growth is compound because the fixed growth rate applies to an ever-increasing population

FORCED MIGRATION

migration event in which individuals are forced to leave a country against their will

Generation X

A term coined by artist and author Douglas Coupland to describe people born in the United States between the years 1965 and 1980. This post-baby-boom generation will have to support the baby boom cohort as they head into their retirement years.

Geodemography

another term for population geography

IMMIGRATION

process of individuals moving into a new country with the intentions of remaining there

Infant mortality rate

percentage of children who die before their first birthday within a particular area or country

INTERNAL MIGRATION

permanent or semipermanent movement of individuals within a particular country

intervening obstacles

forces or factors that may limit human migration

involuntary migration

another name for forced migration

life expectancy

average age an individual are expected to live, which varies across space, between genders, and even between races