gen psych exam 3

Gesalt approach

 we perceive objects as a whole rather than as a sum of individual parts

Figure ground perception

distinguish between object and background

Proximity grouping

group together objects that are close to one another

Similarity grouping

group together objects that are similar to one another

Continuity grouping

brain organizes stimuli into continuous lines or patterns

“connect the dots”

Closure grouping

 perceive incomplete figures as complete

Perceptual constancy

 interpretation of changing sensations as perception that is relatively consistent

Color constancy

 consistent perception of color of objects although the amount of light changes

Lightness constancy

 consistent perception of shade of objects although amount of light changes

Shape constancy

perception that objects shape remains even if angle is different

Size constancy

perception that the size of an object remains constant even if we see its a different size

Classical condition

 learning to respond to a new stimulus that has been associated with another stimulus that normally produces the response

Operant conditioning

 learning behaviors due to experiences with their consequences

Observational learning

 learning via observation and imitation

Unconditional stimulus

 stimulus that automatically causes response without prior conditioning

Unconditioned response

 innate response to unconditioned stimulus 

Conditioned stimulus

 previously neutral stimulus that now causes a conditioned response due to its association with an unconditiones stimulus

Conditioned response

 learned response to a stimulus thay did not originally elicit the response

Acquisition

stage of conditioning in which the association between the 2 stimuli (US and CS) is being learned

Generalization in classical conditioning

conditioned response to stimuli that are NOT conditioned stimulus but similar to the CS

Discrimination in classical conditioning

conditioned response occurs only to a specific stimulus

Extinction in classical conditioning

failure to exhibit the condition response to the condition stimulus because the CS can no longer predict the Unconditioned response

Spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

 The reappearance of the condition response to the original conditioned stimulus after extinction is short-lived.

Second-order (higher-order) conditioning-

 new neutral stimulus becomes associated with previously condition stimulus- becomes new CS; tends to be weaker than first-order conditioning

Conditioned aversion

 classically conditioned association between a CS and US that causes an unpleasant response

Counterconditioning

 replacing unwanted CR with wanted response (mary cover jones)

Instrumental conditioning (Thor)

law of effect; the tendency of an organism to produce a behavior depends on the effect that the behavior has on the environment.

Operant conditioning

Behavior is controlled by its consequences (skinner box) (voluntary)

Reinforcement

- consequence of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

Punishment-

decreases the probability of a behavior to occur

Shaping

reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response uses successive approximations.

Successive approximations

 responses that are increasingly similar to the desired response

Positive reinforcement-

presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases the probability of behavior

Negative reinforcement

 removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases the probability  of behavior

Positive punishment

 unpleasant stimulus follows behavior -> decreases the probability of behavior 

Negative punishment

- removal of pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> decreases the probability of behavior 

Generalization in Operant conditioning

after a behavior is reinforced in one situation, it is performed in a different situation

Discrimination in operant conditioning

 a behavior that is reinforced in one situation is not performed in a different situation

Extinction in operant conditioning

after the reinforcer is withdrawn, the behavior decreases.

Spont recovery in operant conditioning

 after extinction, the behavior reappears

Continuous reinforcement

consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs

Intermittent (partial) reinforcement

 consequences are given only some of the times the behavior occurs

Ratio schedule of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after the behavior is exhibited a certain number of times

Interval schedules of reinforcement

 reinforcement is given after a certain amount of time.

Fixed ratio

reinforcement for a fixed (set) proportion of responses emitted

Variable ratio

 a reward for some percentage of responses but the unpredictable number of responses required before reinforcement

Fixed interval

reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

Variable interval

 reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant

Extrinsic motivation

pursuit of goal for external rewards

Intrinsic motivation

the pursuit of activity for its own sake

Overjustification effect

 too much reward -> undermines intrinsic motivation

Observational learning-

learning by observing the behavior of others

Modeling-

 imitating others' behaviors

Memory-

formation that has been stored and can be retrieved 

Encoding

getting information into memory

Storage

 maintaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

pulling previously encoded and stored information from memory

Sensory memory

 a system that holds sensory information for a brief time then dissapears

Iconic memory

 visual sensory memory

Echoic memory-

 auditory sensor memory

Short term memory

 information that is available to consciousness for about 20-30 seconds, 7+-2 capacity 

Long term memory-

 relatively permanent memory, unlimited capacity 

Explicit memory

 conscious recollection of material from long term memory (declarative)

Semantic memory

emory of general knowledge

Episodic memory

 memory of personally experienced events

Implicit memory-

 not brought to mind consciously but expressed in behavior (nondeclarative) classically conditioned associations

Procedural memory

 memory for the performance of skills

Priming-

prior exposure to a stimulus affects responses to later stimulus

Recall

 producing memories using minimal retrieval cues ( short answer exam)

Recognition-

 knowledge of whether one has previously been exposed to information (MC test)

Relearning-

learning occurs more quickly the second time it is learned 

Chunking

organizing information into smaller meaningful pieces to facilitate memory

Mnemonics

 strategies and tricks for improving memory

Rehearsal-

repeating more information

Maintenance  rehearsal-

rote repetition of material

Elaborative rehearsal

 thinking about the meaning of information

Levels of processing (craik and tulving)

 information can be processed at different depths, from shallow to deep

Shallow processing-

 superficial features, such as physical appearance

Deep processing

meaning

Encoding specificity

 specific cues are encoded with the memory

Context-dependent memory

environment in which somethign is learned serves as cue for retrieval

State dependent memory

 physical or mental state in which something is learned serves ad cue for retrieval 

Encoding failure

memory fails to form due to lack of attention or processing

Storage decay

after memory has been stored, may fade

Ebbingaus forgetting curve

 after forming a memory. Majority of forgetting occurs initially 

Retrieval failure

stored memories cannot be accessed 

Anterograde amnesia (H.M)

memory loss for information encountered after head injury 

Retrograde amnesia

 memory loss for information encountered before head injury 

Heuristics

 simple rules for making complex decisions/ judgments 

Representativeness heuristics-

tendency to see someone or something as belonging to a particular group (stereotyping)

Problem- base-rate fallacy-

using the representativeness heuristic means ignoring base rates

Base rates-

 frequency with which given events or cases occur in a population

Availability heuristic

 strategy for making judgements based on how easily dprvigiv kinds of information can be brought to mind

Simulation heuristic

imagining alternative version of actual events shapes emotional response 

Perseverance effect

beliefs tend to persist in the form of disconfirming information

Confirmation bias

 the tendency to search for and use information that is consistent with our existing beliefs 

Stereotype threat

threat felt when the stereotype is salient to targets of negative stereotypes (girls are bad at math)

Fixed mindset

performance is assumed to reflect ability that is unchangeable

Growth mindset

performance is assumed to reflect effort that is modifiable