gen psych exam 3

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Gesalt approach

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103 Terms

1

Gesalt approach

 we perceive objects as a whole rather than as a sum of individual parts

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2

Figure ground perception

distinguish between object and background

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3

Proximity grouping

group together objects that are close to one another

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4

Similarity grouping

group together objects that are similar to one another

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5

Continuity grouping

brain organizes stimuli into continuous lines or patterns


“connect the dots”

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6

Closure grouping

 perceive incomplete figures as complete

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7

Perceptual constancy

 interpretation of changing sensations as perception that is relatively consistent

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8

Color constancy

 consistent perception of color of objects although the amount of light changes

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9

Lightness constancy

 consistent perception of shade of objects although amount of light changes

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10

Shape constancy

perception that objects shape remains even if angle is different

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11

Size constancy

perception that the size of an object remains constant even if we see its a different size

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12

Classical condition

 learning to respond to a new stimulus that has been associated with another stimulus that normally produces the response

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13

Operant conditioning

 learning behaviors due to experiences with their consequences

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14

Observational learning

 learning via observation and imitation

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15

Unconditional stimulus

 stimulus that automatically causes response without prior conditioning

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16

Unconditioned response

 innate response to unconditioned stimulus 

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17

Conditioned stimulus

 previously neutral stimulus that now causes a conditioned response due to its association with an unconditiones stimulus

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18

Conditioned response

 learned response to a stimulus thay did not originally elicit the response

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19

Acquisition

stage of conditioning in which the association between the 2 stimuli (US and CS) is being learned

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20

Generalization in classical conditioning

conditioned response to stimuli that are NOT conditioned stimulus but similar to the CS

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21

Discrimination in classical conditioning

conditioned response occurs only to a specific stimulus

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22

Extinction in classical conditioning

failure to exhibit the condition response to the condition stimulus because the CS can no longer predict the Unconditioned response

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23

Spontaneous recovery in classical conditioning

 The reappearance of the condition response to the original conditioned stimulus after extinction is short-lived.

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24

Second-order (higher-order) conditioning-

 new neutral stimulus becomes associated with previously condition stimulus- becomes new CS; tends to be weaker than first-order conditioning

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25

Conditioned aversion

 classically conditioned association between a CS and US that causes an unpleasant response

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26

Counterconditioning

 replacing unwanted CR with wanted response (mary cover jones)

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27

Instrumental conditioning (Thor)

law of effect; the tendency of an organism to produce a behavior depends on the effect that the behavior has on the environment.

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28

Operant conditioning

Behavior is controlled by its consequences (skinner box) (voluntary)

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29

Reinforcement

- consequence of behavior that increases the probability that the behavior will occur

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30

Punishment-

decreases the probability of a behavior to occur

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31

Shaping

reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired response uses successive approximations.

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32

Successive approximations

 responses that are increasingly similar to the desired response

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33

Positive reinforcement-

presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases the probability of behavior


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34

Negative reinforcement

 removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behavior -> increases the probability  of behavior

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35

Positive punishment

 unpleasant stimulus follows behavior -> decreases the probability of behavior 

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36

Negative punishment

- removal of pleasant stimulus after a behavior -> decreases the probability of behavior 

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37

Generalization in Operant conditioning

after a behavior is reinforced in one situation, it is performed in a different situation

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38

Discrimination in operant conditioning

 a behavior that is reinforced in one situation is not performed in a different situation

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39

Extinction in operant conditioning

after the reinforcer is withdrawn, the behavior decreases.

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40

Spont recovery in operant conditioning

 after extinction, the behavior reappears

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41

Continuous reinforcement

consequences are the same each time the behavior occurs

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42

Intermittent (partial) reinforcement

 consequences are given only some of the times the behavior occurs

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43

Ratio schedule of reinforcement

reinforcement is given after the behavior is exhibited a certain number of times

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44

Interval schedules of reinforcement

 reinforcement is given after a certain amount of time.

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45

Fixed ratio

reinforcement for a fixed (set) proportion of responses emitted

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46

Variable ratio

 a reward for some percentage of responses but the unpredictable number of responses required before reinforcement

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47

Fixed interval

reinforcement for responses after a fixed amount of time

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48

Variable interval

 reinforcement for responses after an amount of time that is not constant

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49

Extrinsic motivation

pursuit of goal for external rewards

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50

Intrinsic motivation

the pursuit of activity for its own sake

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51

Overjustification effect

 too much reward -> undermines intrinsic motivation

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52

Observational learning-

learning by observing the behavior of others

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53

Modeling-

 imitating others' behaviors

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54

Memory-

formation that has been stored and can be retrieved 


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55

Encoding

getting information into memory


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56

Storage

 maintaining encoded information over time

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57

Retrieval

pulling previously encoded and stored information from memory


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58

Sensory memory

 a system that holds sensory information for a brief time then dissapears


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59

Iconic memory

 visual sensory memory

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60

Echoic memory-

 auditory sensor memory


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61

Short term memory

 information that is available to consciousness for about 20-30 seconds, 7+-2 capacity 


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62

Long term memory-

 relatively permanent memory, unlimited capacity 


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63

Explicit memory

 conscious recollection of material from long term memory (declarative)


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64

Semantic memory

emory of general knowledge


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65

Episodic memory

 memory of personally experienced events


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66

Implicit memory-

 not brought to mind consciously but expressed in behavior (nondeclarative) classically conditioned associations


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67

Procedural memory

 memory for the performance of skills


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68

Priming-

prior exposure to a stimulus affects responses to later stimulus


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69

Recall

 producing memories using minimal retrieval cues ( short answer exam)


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70

Recognition-

 knowledge of whether one has previously been exposed to information (MC test)


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71

Relearning-

learning occurs more quickly the second time it is learned 


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72

Chunking

organizing information into smaller meaningful pieces to facilitate memory


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73

Mnemonics

 strategies and tricks for improving memory


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74

Rehearsal-

repeating more information


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75

Maintenance  rehearsal-

rote repetition of material

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76

Elaborative rehearsal

 thinking about the meaning of information


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77

Levels of processing (craik and tulving)

 information can be processed at different depths, from shallow to deep


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78

Shallow processing-

 superficial features, such as physical appearance


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79

Deep processing

meaning

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80

Encoding specificity

 specific cues are encoded with the memory


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81

Context-dependent memory

environment in which somethign is learned serves as cue for retrieval


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82

State dependent memory

 physical or mental state in which something is learned serves ad cue for retrieval 


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83

Encoding failure

memory fails to form due to lack of attention or processing


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84

Storage decay

after memory has been stored, may fade


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85

Ebbingaus forgetting curve

 after forming a memory. Majority of forgetting occurs initially 


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86

Retrieval failure

stored memories cannot be accessed 


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87

Anterograde amnesia (H.M)

memory loss for information encountered after head injury 


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88

Retrograde amnesia

 memory loss for information encountered before head injury 


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89

Heuristics

 simple rules for making complex decisions/ judgments 


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90

Representativeness heuristics-

tendency to see someone or something as belonging to a particular group (stereotyping)


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91

Problem- base-rate fallacy-

using the representativeness heuristic means ignoring base rates


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92

Base rates-

 frequency with which given events or cases occur in a population

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93

Availability heuristic

 strategy for making judgements based on how easily dprvigiv kinds of information can be brought to mind


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94

Simulation heuristic

imagining alternative version of actual events shapes emotional response 


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95

Perseverance effect

beliefs tend to persist in the form of disconfirming information


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96

Confirmation bias

 the tendency to search for and use information that is consistent with our existing beliefs 


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97

Stereotype threat

threat felt when the stereotype is salient to targets of negative stereotypes (girls are bad at math)

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98

Fixed mindset

performance is assumed to reflect ability that is unchangeable


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99

Growth mindset

performance is assumed to reflect effort that is modifiable

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100
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