History of Science and Technology Final Exam Review

What was the Scientific Revolution?

1500-1700s shift in Europe from relying on authority to using observation, experiments, and math to understand nature.

How did views of nature change?

From seeing nature as alive and God-directed to seeing it as a machine governed by universal laws.

What is empiricism?

The idea that knowledge comes from experience and observation, not just from books or authority.

Why was mathematizing nature important?

Using math let scientists predict and test things precisely, such as planetary motion and falling bodies.

What did Copernicus do?

Proposed the heliocentric model: the Sun (not Earth) is at the centre.

Why is Galileo important?

Used the telescope to support heliocentrism and argued that experiments and math are key to physics.

What did Newton achieve?

Created laws of motion and gravity, showing the same laws apply in the heavens and on Earth.

Why is the Scientific Revolution the start of modern science?

It established scientific methods (experiment, math, reproducibility) and a law-governed view of nature we still use.

How did science and technology reinforce each other in the Industrial Revolution?

Science led to new principles like thermodynamics, which improved machines; machines provided better measurements, enhancing science.

What is mechanization?

Replacing human/animal labour with machines, such as steam engines and textile machines.

How did industrialization change society?

Led to factories, cities, mass production, and new classes (factory owners vs. wage workers).

What is the 'professionalization' of science?

Science became a paid job with degrees, labs, journals, and societies, rather than just a hobby for the wealthy.

What problem did Darwin solve?

Explained adaptation and diversity of species by natural causes, not by special creation.

What are the main ideas of natural selection?

Individuals differ, more are born than can survive, there is a struggle for survival, and those with helpful traits have more offspring.

How did Darwin challenge traditional beliefs?

Suggested common descent and changing species, not fixed kinds created once and for all.

What was missing from Darwin's theory?

He didn't know how traits were inherited (no genetics yet).

What did Mendel discover?

Traits are passed by discrete units (genes); some dominant, some recessive, not all blended.

What is the Law of Segregation?

Each person has two copies of a gene; they separate in gametes, so offspring get one from each parent.

What is the Law of Independent Assortment?

Different gene pairs usually separate independently, allowing traits to mix in many combinations.

What is the Modern Synthesis?

20th-century combination of Darwin's evolution, Mendelian genetics, and statistics, showing how small genetic changes lead to big evolutionary changes.

Why was rediscovering Mendel important?

Gave a mechanism of heredity (genes) so evolution could be explained with genes, mutations, and math.

What is 'dual-use' technology? Give an example.

Tech that can be used for good or harm; for example, Haber-Bosch technology for fertilizer and explosives.

Why was Germany strong in science before WWI?

Strong technical education, close ties between universities, industry, and the state, and support for applied science.

What did Fritz Haber do in WWI?

Helped develop chemical weapons, such as chlorine gas, for Germany.

What project symbolized 'Big Science' in WWII?

The Manhattan Project - a huge, secret, state-funded project to build the atomic bomb.

What is 'Big Science'?

Large, expensive, team-based science with big labs, big budgets, and often military or national goals.

How did quantum mechanics change ideas of certainty?

At tiny scales, outcomes are probabilistic, not perfectly predictable.

What is the 'observer effect'?

Measuring a system can change it, so the observer is not fully separate and neutral.

What does Schrödinger's cat show?

In quantum theory, something can be in multiple states at once (superposition) until observed.

How did new physics affect thinking outside physics?

Encouraged people to question total objectivity and accept limits to knowledge and the role of context.

How did cell biology support genetics?

Showed genes on chromosomes in the cell nucleus, linking heredity to cell structures.

What were Mendelians vs. Biometricians arguing about?

Mendelians focused on discrete traits and genes, while Biometricians focused on continuous traits and statistics.

How did the Modern Synthesis resolve the Mendelian vs. Biometrician debate?

Many genes with small effects can produce continuous variation, so both sides were partly right.

What is eugenics?

A movement to 'improve' humans by controlling who can reproduce, often racist and coercive.

Who coined 'eugenics'?

Francis Galton.

How did eugenicists misuse science?

Used biased data and statistics to claim some groups were inferior and to justify sterilization and discrimination.

Why is eugenics an important warning?

Shows how 'science' can be shaped by social prejudice and used to justify harmful policies.

What was the IGY (1957-58)?

A huge global project to study Earth using shared data and coordinated measurements.

Why was 1957 chosen for the IGY?

It was a sunspot peak, good for studying Earth's atmosphere and magnetism.

Who organized the IGY and what did it create?

ICSU; set up World Data Centers to store and share data worldwide.

What were key results of the IGY?

Better maps of oceans, support for continental drift, and early satellite science, such as Sputnik.

Who first proposed continental drift?

Alfred Wegener.

Why was he rejected at first?

He couldn't explain how continents move.

Who suggested the mechanism for plate tectonics?

Arthur Holmes - convection currents in Earth's mantle.

How did IGY data help in geology?

Ocean floor maps and seismic data showed moving plates.

Who finished the modern theory of plate tectonics?

J. Tuzo Wilson (1960s).

Why is plate tectonics important?

It's the unifying theory of modern geology.

What was the Green Revolution?

Use of science and technology to boost crop yields worldwide.

Who was a key person in the Green Revolution?

Norman Borlaug.

What were the main tools of the Green Revolution?

High-yield seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation.

What were the main effects of the Green Revolution?

More food, less famine → but more chemicals and less biodiversity.

Who imagined early mechanical computers?

Charles Babbage.

Who is considered the first programmer?

Ada Lovelace.

What was ENIAC?

One of the first large electronic computers (1940s).

Who invented the transistor?

Shockley, Bardeen, Brattain (1947).

Why is the transistor important?

Replaced vacuum tubes → smaller, cheaper, more reliable electronics.

Who invented the integrated circuit (microchip)?

Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce.

Who made the first microprocessor?

Ted Hoff at Intel (1971).

Why do transistors and microprocessors matter?

They made possible modern computers, phones, satellites - the digital age.

What changed for women in science in the 1970s?

Anti-nepotism rules ended, equal pay laws, more women entering STEM.

Why is the change for women in science important?

It widened who could be a scientist, changing the profession.

Who wrote Silent Spring and what was it about?

Rachel Carson; the dangers of pesticides, especially DDT.

What were the impacts of Silent Spring?

Helped launch the modern environmental movement, creation of EPA (1970), and DDT ban (1972) in the U.S.

What was the Human Genome Project?

International effort to map all human DNA.

When did the Human Genome Project happen?

Started 1988, draft 2001, completed 2003.

Why is the Human Genome Project important?

Gave a blueprint of human genes, changed medicine and genetics, and cut DNA sequencing costs.

What was Telstar?

First active communication satellite (1962) → enabled live international TV.

What was Echo?

A passive balloon satellite that reflected radio signals.

Who discovered microwave cooking by accident?

Percy Spencer in the 1940s while working on radar.

Why is the discovery of microwave cooking important?

Shows how military research can lead to everyday consumer tech.

What is the main question of the Royal Society report?

How AI is changing scientific research - its methods, opportunities, and risks.

Why is reproducibility a big issue with AI?

AI models are complex and opaque; results depend on data, model, and hardware.

What three action areas did the report highlight regarding AI?

Access, Integrity, Ethics & Safety.

Why is interdisciplinarity important in AI-based science?

AI-based science needs AI experts + domain scientists + ethicists + social scientists working together.

What's the risk if only a few models/companies dominate AI?

Groupthink, bias, power concentration, and big problems if those systems fail.

Why is AI's energy use a concern?

Large models use a lot of electricity and computing power, affecting climate and fair access.

What is MARIE?

Multimodal Activity Recognition in Industrial Environments - AI that assists chip factory workers.

How is MARIE different from automation?

It assists humans, doesn't replace them; the human is the expert, the AI is the helper.

How does MARIE learn in a new setting?

It's deployed early and learns by workers speaking and labeling actions as they work.

Why do workers sometimes find MARIE annoying at first?

They must do their job and train the system, and the AI makes mistakes at the beginning.

How do social scientists help the MARIE project?

They interview workers about trust, annoyance, workflow, and feed this back to engineers.

What is a big fear workers have about AI like MARIE?

That they are 'training their replacement' and will lose their jobs.

How do Intel researchers respond to that fear?

They explain that no robot can yet do this delicate work; MARIE is meant to support, not replace.

What is Intel's Responsible AI process?

Ethical impact assessments + a Responsible AI council to review projects for privacy, safety, rights, inclusion.

What triggered the U.S. space race?

The Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957.

What organization did the U.S. create for space exploration?

NASA.

What goal did Kennedy set in 1961 for the space program?

Land a man on the Moon and return him safely before 1970.

What happened in Apollo 1?

A cabin fire during a ground test killed three astronauts, leading to redesign for safety.

What did Apollo 8 accomplish?

First human orbit of the Moon, gave us Earthrise view.

Why was Apollo 11's landing risky?

Computer alarms + boulder field forced Neil Armstrong to land manually with very low fuel.

What was special about Apollo 12's launch?

Rocket was hit by lightning twice, but mission recovered and still landed precisely.

Why is Apollo 13 called a 'successful failure'?

A tank exploded, but NASA used improvised fixes to bring the crew home safely.

Why use a lunar rover in later Apollo missions?

To travel farther, carry more gear, and do better geology.

What was the orange soil found in Apollo 17?

Volcanic glass, important for understanding the Moon's volcanic past.

Why did the Apollo program end after 17?

High costs, shifting politics, and less public interest, even though science could continue.

How is Apollo an example of Big Science?

Huge budget, teams, infrastructure, and geopolitical + scientific goals.