Human Development Exam #3

moral development, gender and sexuality, social contexts of development, family and peers, school and achievement, & death and dying

biological perspective on moral development

evolutionary, genetic heritage, brain areas

psychoanalytic perspective on moral development

* Freud: superego and guilt
* today: induction, empathy-based guilt

social learning perspective on moral development

modeling moral behavior; self-control

behaviorist perspective on moral development

rewards and punishments

cognitive-developmental perspective on moral development

children as active thinkers about social rules

self-regulation

conscious control of feelings, thoughts, and behavior; aka self-control

response initiation

ability to not initiate a behavior before you have evaluated all the information

response inhibition

ability to stop a behavior that has begun

delayed gratification

ability to hold out for a longer reward by foregoing a smaller immediate reward

What was the marshmallow study?

* measured how well children could delay immediate gratification to receive greater rewards in the future
* after following the children in the study, they concluded that the ability to delay gratification was critical for success in life

Which factors influence the development of self-regulation?

prefrontal lobe development, improved language and cognitive strategies, parenting, temperament, coregulation

How can caregivers build child’s self-regulation?

* provide strong and calm presence, which creates felt security
* provide strong emotional coaching of self-regulation
* validate, label, and talk about emotions
* structure the environment
* limits, routines

Why is it difficult to “be with”/co-regulate someone’s emotions?

we have to be comfortable with our own emotions first

What did we learn from the Yale Baby lab about moral development?

* as young as 3 months, we can distinguish between good and bad
* babies are born with a sense of justice
* infants are born with ingroup bias
* as kids get older, they show more generosity
* we are more biased when we are frustrated

psychoanalytic perspective on moral development

moral development occurs when a person can regulate themselves, taking into consideration the needs of others while attempting to satisfy the self

role of superego in moral development

* sense of right and wrong
* ego ideal: pride
* conscience: guilt

Damon’s stages of empathy development

1. early infancy: global empathy
2. 1-2 years: genuine feelings of concern, but can’t translate into action
3. early childhood: aware of others’ perspectives allows more appropriate responses
4. 10-12 years: empathy for people in unfortunate circumstances; humanitarianism

What is induction and why is it the most effective approach to discipline?

explaining why a behavior is wrong, emphasizing how it affects other people, and often providing a better option or suggestions on how the child can undo any damage; it is empathy-based and results in internalization of rules

How does the social world and cognitive development influence prosocial behavior?

social world:

* collectivists cultures promote prosocial behavior
* people live in extended families, work is shared, maintenance of positive relationships with others is emphasized

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cognitive influences

* associated with cognitive maturation, self-regulation, and perspective-taking

Kohlberg’s 3 stages of moral development

1. pre-conventional=young children’s behavior is governed by punishment; from early childhood to age 9


1. stage 1: concern with punishment as motivator of moral judgments
2. stage 2: self-interest and concern about what others can do for you
2. conventional=moral decisions are based on conforming to social rules; by age 9 or 10


1. stage 3: children uphold rules in order to please others and gain affection and sympathy
2. stage 4: individuals buy into the rules and standards because they are concerned with maintaining social order
3. post-conventional=emphasizes autonomous decision-making based on principles such as valuing human dignity; occurs in adolescence


1. stage 5: individuals view laws and rules as flexible and part of the social contract or agreement meant to further human interests
2. stage 6: defined by abstract ethical principles that are universal and laid for all people regardless of law, such as equality and respect for human dignity

agression

behavior that harms or violates the rights of others, whether overtly or covertly; part of human nature

instrumental aggression

behavior that hurts someone else in order to achieve a goal such as gaining a possession; begins at age 1, increases until 4 or 5; not intended to harm

relational aggression

harming someone through nonphysical acts aimed at harming a person’s connections with others, such as by exclusion and rumor spreading; begins at 4 or 5; more damaging in collectivist cultures

When are children the most physically aggressive?

between 2 and 3 years of age

What is conduct disorder and how did we learn to understand it?

psychiatric diagnosis that refers to a severe form of antisocial behavior; it may be a result of traumatic life experiences

school-to-prison pipeline

to education and public safety policies that push students into the criminal legal system

behaviorist approach to discipline vs trauma-informed

behaviorist:

* considers maladaptive behavior to be goal-driven or attention-seeking
* controls behavior with fear and consequences
* associated with school-to-prison pipeline

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trauma-informed

* behind disorganized behavior are disorganized emotions
* behind chronically disorganized emotions are disorganized relationships
* policies and capacities that promote secure relationships and help children develop emotional regulation and executive functioning

disorganized attachment

fear of person who is supposed to provide security

nature of relationship in disorganized attachment

parent is either frightening or frightened

child’s strategies in disorganized attachment

* starts out with no strategy
* by age 3, develops strategy
* controlling-aggressive
* controlling-caregiving

strongest predictor of psychopathology in adolescence

disorganized attachment assessed at 12 and 18 months

effects of toxic stress on brain and nervous system

disrupts neural connections (especially in hippocampus), produces overly active stress response (fight, flight, freeze)

effects of toxic stress on school behavior

learning problems, trust/relationship problems, emotional dysregulation (aggressive, fleeing, or shut-down emotionally)

biological sex

biological, determined by genetics

gender

determined by socialization and roles that the individual adopts

gender identity

one’s image of oneself as masculine or feminine, embodying the roles and behaviors that society associates with males and females

sexual orientation

term that refers to whether someone is sexually attracted to others of the same sex, opposite sex, or both

gender stereotypes

broad generalized judgments of the activities, attitudes, skills, and characteristics deemed appropriate for males or females in a given culture

gender role norms

normative expectations based on gender that are applied to individuals’ everyday behavior

gender typing

process by which children acquire gender role norms

race and gender discrimination

women of color and female minorities experience worse discrimination than white women

biological explanations on gender differences

* __evolutionary perspective__: gender differences in behavior are adaptive
* __hormonal differences__: high levels of testosterone promotes male-typical behavior development

cognitive-developmental explanations for gender differences

* children’s understanding of gender is constructed through interactions with the world and thinking about their experiences
* __gender schema theory__=cognitive explanation of gender role development that emphasizes information processing and environmental influences

contextual explanations for gender differences

* emphasis on social learning and influence of sociocultural context
* parents:
* different perceptions and expectations for each gender
* gender-consistent behavior socially regulated through approval
* peers:
* peers reinforce gender-typed behavior and criticize cross-gender activities
* differences in play style
* media:
* gender stereotyping in media depictions
* more male than female characters, with males in action roles and females in domestic roles
* culture:
* most cultures emphasize gender differences
* all societies have values regarding gender-appropriate behavior and all societies transmit these values to children

How does gender development look across the lifespan?

* infancy: ability to distinguish, preferences
* childhood: rigidity of gender beliefs; gender and play
* adolescence: what is gender intensification?
* adulthood: what happens to gender identity?

How does sexual activity look across the lifespan?

* childhood:
* self-stimulation
* adolescence:
* sexual identity
* decisions about sexual behavior (peer and parenting influences)
* most have sexual intercourse at about age 17
* early sexual behavior linked with problem behaviors
* emerging adulthood:
* casual sex
* alcohol use and sexual assault
* adulthood:
* highest mid 20s-mid 30s; modest decline in 40s and 50s
* physical influences on frequency: menopause, erectile dysfunction
* predictors: health, having a partner
* late adulthood:
* frequency declines; satisfaction stays same
* shift in nature of sexual behavior

comprehensive sex education

ex education instruction method based on a curriculum that aims to give students the knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values to make appropriate and healthy choices in their sexual lives; most effective

practical effects of poverty

* neighborhoods:
* low income, high unemployment, physical structures less maintained, more noise, more danger, higher air and water pollution
* schools:
* fewer resources, lower graduation rates, smaller percentage of students going to college, peer conflict, delinquency
* family life:
* parents value conformity, physical punishment, authoritarian parenting, parents less conversational, mental illness more common, family violence more common, less reading, more TV, less social support, more instability
* emotional regulation less developed, higher physical stress (high blood pressure and stress hormones), ore mental and physical health problems, lower achievement

How does poverty affect child development?

* Emotional regulation less developed
* Higher physical stress: high blood pressure and stress hormones
* More mental and physical health problems
* Lower achievement

individual bias

learned beliefs, opinions, or attitudes that people are unaware of and often reinforce stereotypes

systemic bias

prejudice, bigotry, or unfairness directed by health, educational, government, judicial, legal, religious, political, financial, media, or cultural institutions towards individuals of an oppressed or marginalized group

explicit bias

actions based on prejudice and stereotypes intending to do so

implicit bias

actions based on prejudice and stereotypes without intending to do so

adultification bias of black girls

adults view Black girls as less innocent and more adult-like than their white peers

solutions to racial bias (Eberhardt)

adding “friction” to bring our unconscious biases to our conscious

How does “shark music” relate to implicit bias?

shark music is a metaphor to illustrate how mental associations can make something unthreatening, such as someone of another race, can feel dangerous

historical trauma and unresolved grief

grief that accompanies trauma; cumulative emotional and psychological wounding over the lifespan and across generations, emanating from massive group trauma

Baumrind’s parenting styles and outcomes

* __authoritarian__: high behavioral control and low levels of warmth and autonomy granting
* results in aggressive or anxious/depressed kids
* __authoritative__: parents are warm and sensitive to children’s needs, grant appropriate autonomy, and exert firm control
* results in positive social, academic, and emotional outcomes
* __permissive__: high levels of warmth and low levels of control or discipline
* results in kids that lack self-control
* __uninvolved__: low levels of warmth and acceptance
* results in emotional withdrawal, fear of attachment, anxiety/stress, delinquency, and poor performance

What does research show about parent-child conflict?

* rise in parent/child conflict in early adolescence
* continuity in parent-child relationships
* adapting parenting strategies to children’s increased ability to reason and desire for independence

Who is more likely to struggle with becoming a parent?

* unrealistic expectations about parenthood
* lack of knowledge about typical child development
* insecure attachment with their own parents
* insecure attachment with spouse
* lack social support
* low SES
* young parent

What does research show about the effects of single parenting on children?

* more physical and mental health problems
* poorer academic achievement
* less social competence
* more behavior problems

\*\* consequences depend on degree of stress in household, amount of time spent with child, and economic status

What does research show about the effects on children of having same-sex parents?

children similar in adjustment and development as those of other sex couples

What are the risk factors for divorce?

* young age
* multiple life stressors
* dissimilarities in age, ethnicity, religion, attitudes, and values
* poor education
* economic disadvantage
* poor coping, communication, and conflict resolution skills

What are the effects of divorce on children?

children show several types of psychological maladjustments for an average of 2 years: anxiety, depression, sleep disturbances, phobias, school difficulties

What factors buffer children from the negative effects of divorce?

* authoritative parenting
* maintaining routines and consistency
* talking to child about fears
* avoiding exposing child to parental conflict

What does research show about the effects of growing up in a blended family?

* presents children with challenges for adjustment
* transition is longer than that of divorce
* multiple transitions entailed are stressful
* age and relationship with stepparent influences adaptation

What are the characteristics of bullies? Victims?

Bullies:

* lack parental warmth, family chaos and conflict
* harsh physical discipline
* permissive parenting
* lack parental supervision

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Victims:

* insecure (submissive, anxious, passive)
* isolated
* overprotective parents
* perceived as “different”

What does Gottman and Johnson research show about the key to healthy intimate relationships?

Gottman: turning toward “emotional bids” for connection

Johnson: emotional responsiveness

disengagement theory

perspective that declines in social interaction in older age are due to mutual withdrawal between older adults and society as they anticipate death

activity theory

view that older adults want to remain active and that declines in social interaction are not a result of elders’ desires but are a function of social barriers to engagement

continuity theory

perspective that older adults strive to maintain continuity and consistency in self across the past and into the future; successful elders retain a sense that they are the same person they have always been despite physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes

socioemotional selectivity theory

perspective that as emotional regulation function of social interaction becomes increasingly important to older adults, they prefer to interact with familiar social partners, accounting for the narrowing of the social network with age

intimate partner violence (IPV)

physical and sexual violence, stalking, psychological aggression, and/or control of reproductive sexual health

cycle of violence

* __crisis phase__:
* “the blow up”
* worse than before
* threats
* destruction
* fear for you or your child’s safety
* drugs and/or alcohol abuse
* __calm phase__:
* the person you fell in love with
* never happen again
* I’ll get help
* “I love you”
* __tension phase__:
* walking on eggshells
* everything has to be perfect
* always worrying or in fear of what if
* feeling “something” is about to happen

sexual assault

any sexual act without consent

myths of sexual assault

* victim “asked for it” by dressing or behaving a certain way
* nonconsensual sex with a romantic partner, friend, or acquaintance cannot be considered rape
* men driven to rape by uncontrollable impulses
* college men more accepting of rape myths
* can affect prevalence of sexual assault

sexual citizenship

knowing that you have the right to bodily and sexual autonomy and recognize that everyone else has those same rights

sexual assault and minoritized groups

minoritized groups based on race/ethnicity, gender identity, sexual orientation, and disability are disproportionately victimized

child-centered programs

**constructivist** approach to early childhood education that encourages children to actively build their own understanding of the world through observing, interacting with objects and people, and engaging in a variety of activities that allow them to manipulate materials and interact with teachers and peers

academically-centered programs

approach to early childhood education that emphasizes providing children with structures learning environments in which teachers deliver direct instruction on letters, numbers, shapes, and academic skills

Head Start outcomes

improves cognitive performance and other long-lasting social and physical effects

achievement motivation

willingness to persist at challenging tasks and meet high standards of accomplishment

growth mindset

skills and characteristics are malleable, leads to mastery

fixed mindset

characteristics are unchangeable, leads to learned helplessness

contextual influences on achievement motivation

* parents:
* parents’ beliefs and attitudes about ability
* home context:
* availability of opportunities and resources
* teachers:
* warm and helpful, attribute children’s failure to effort
* positive learning environment
* peers:
* adolescents’ beliefs about their friends’ behavior and attitudes and implicit norms of the group
* cultural influences:
* family as important influence on achievement
* cultural differences in mindsets
* cultural variation in use and perception of criticism and praise

Nadine Burke Harris: What do the symptoms of toxic stress get diagnosed as and why?

ADHD; toxic stress can lead to learning problems, which is common in ADHD as well

What does Paris, Bhat, & Thombs (2015) review show about ADHD diagnosis in adults?

* dramatic increases in prescriptions for adult ADHD during the last decade should arouse concern
* diagnosing ADHD should make use of multiple sources of information
* ex: self-report, clinical interviews, collateral information, childhood documentation, and neuropsychological testing
* routine screening with symptom checklists is insufficient, and stimulant response is diagnostically uninformative

What characterizes trauma-informed/sensitive schools?

* understanding that traumatic experiences are prevalent
* understanding that trauma response can have impact on learning, behavior (self-regulation), and relationships
* trauma sensitive schools can help children feel safe to learn
* whole school effort is necessary to change the culture

How do we deny death in the U.S.?

* funeral homes
* euphemistic language
* rejection of the elderly
* search for medically prolonging life
* search for fountain of youth

How does a child’s understanding of death develop into adolescence and adulthood?

* early childhood: preoperational thinking
* 3-5: view death as temporary and reversible
* middle childhood: concrete operational thinking
* 5-7: understand death is final, irreversible, and inevitable
* late childhood: understand biological causality
* adolescence: formal operational thinking
* philosophical questions
* personal fable
* young adults:
* begin to acknowledge their vulnerability (personal fable declines)
* middle adulthood:
* awareness of death increases
* reevaluate their priorities
* death anxiety decreases over the lifespan

Kubler-Ross stages

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Kubler-Ross stages criticism

* not everyone experiences all of them or proceeds in the same pace or order
* ignores the relevance of context

3 types of ageism

* __institutional__=occurs when an institution perpetuates ageism through its actions and policies
* __interpersonal__=occurs in social interactions
* __internalized__=when a person internalizes ageist beliefs and applies them to themselves

grief

emotional response to loss

bereavement

state of loss

What is meant by the “forgotten generation” when it comes to aging?

refers to how we exclude the elderly from society and deny them the same rights that the rest of us have

What does research show about adjusting to death of a loved one when it is a spouse/partner versus a child?

losing a spouse is one of the most stressful and loneliest transitions of life, but losing a child is the most difficult death to grieve

Unique aspects of bereavement in childhood and adolescence

* childhood: children’s grief uniquely affected by cognitive and socioemotional development and understanding nature of death
* adolescence: adolescents tend to have mature conceptions about death, but their experience of grief is influenced by ability to understand and manage emotions, experience of egocentric thought, and emerging sense of self

How do we help children cope with loss?

* help them recognize and express emotions
* provide emotional support
* teach healthy decision making and coping
* 4 C’s of reassurance: cause, catch, cure, care

Distinguish between 4 models of grieving

* __Kubler-Ross__: emotional response
* __Set of tasks to accomplish:__ bereaved person must accept the reality of the loss, experience the pain of grief, adjust to a life without the deceased, and develop a new life while maintaining an enduring connection to the deceased
* __dual-process model__: bereavement is accompanied by loss-oriented stressors and restoration-oriented stressors
* __continuing bonds theory__: when someone dies our relationship with them does not end, but it slowly changes over time