ele, h2o, acid, balance no terms

describe the distribution of body water among fluid compartments and the routes of water gain and loss

About 65% of body water is intracellular fluid (ICF), 35% is extracellular fluid (ECF)—including interstitial fluid, blood plasma, and transcellular fluid. Water is gained by ingestion and metabolic production; lost through urine, feces, breath, sweat, and transpiration.

explain how water moves between fluid compartments

Water moves by osmosis driven by solute concentration gradients; shifts continue until osmotic equilibrium is reached.

describe the mechanisms of regulating water intake and output

Intake is regulated by thirst triggered by osmoreceptors, angiotensin II, and dry mouth. Output is regulated mainly by ADH which increases water reabsorption.

describe the effects of fluid deficiency and excess, and compare the two types of fluid deficiency

Fluid deficiency includes volume depletion (loss of water and sodium) and dehydration (more water lost than sodium). Fluid excess includes volume excess and hypotonic hydration (water intoxication).

name the major cations and anions of the body fluids, and state their functions

Cations: Na⁺, K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺. Anions: Cl⁻, HCO₃⁻, PO₄³⁻. They regulate osmolarity, membrane potentials, muscle/nerve function, and enzyme activity.

define electrolyte balance and compare the electrolyte concentrations of the blood plasma and intracellular fluid

Electrolyte balance means input equals output. Plasma is high in Na⁺ and Cl⁻, while ICF is high in K⁺, Mg²⁺, and phosphates. Osmolarity is similar.

describe the functions and regulation of sodium, and relate these to the effects of aldosterone and other hormones

Na⁺ regulates ECF volume, drives cotransport. Aldosterone increases Na⁺ reabsorption. ADH regulates water retention. Natriuretic peptides increase Na⁺ excretion.

describe the functions and regulation of potassium, and state the physiological effects of potassium imbalances

K⁺ maintains ICF osmolarity and membrane potential. Aldosterone promotes K⁺ excretion. Hyperkalemia increases excitability; hypokalemia reduces it.

describe the functions and regulation of calcium and phosphate, and discuss their relationship to each other

Ca²⁺ supports bones, muscle contraction, clotting. Phosphates are part of ATP, nucleic acids, buffers. PTH raises Ca²⁺ and lowers phosphate.

describe the functions and regulation of magnesium, and state the effects of magnesium imbalances

Mg²⁺ aids enzymes and membrane transport. Reabsorbed in nephron loop. Hypomagnesemia causes tremors; hypermagnesemia depresses reflexes.

describe the functions and regulation of chloride, and discuss its relationship to sodium and acid–base balance

Cl⁻ balances osmolarity, helps make HCl, and maintains pH. Follows Na⁺; affected by HCO₃⁻ shifts during acid–base changes.

define pH and explain how it is related to the concentrations of acids and bases

pH is the negative log of H⁺ concentration. Acids increase H⁺ (lower pH), bases reduce H⁺ (raise pH).

describe the physiological importance of pH and the consequences of deviations from the normal range

Normal pH (7.35–7.45) is vital for enzyme and metabolic function. Acidosis depresses CNS; alkalosis causes overexcitability.

identify the chemical and physiological buffers of the body

Chemical: bicarbonate, phosphate, protein buffers. Physiological: respiratory and urinary systems.

describe the bicarbonate, phosphate, and protein buffer systems and how they function

Bicarbonate buffers ECF. Phosphate buffers ICF and urine. Proteins buffer ICF and plasma via amino acid groups.

explain how the respiratory and urinary systems affect pH

Respiratory: changes CO₂ to adjust carbonic acid. Urinary: secretes H⁺ and reabsorbs HCO₃⁻ for long-term control.

distinguish between acidosis and alkalosis, and between respiratory and metabolic causes of each

Acidosis: pH < 7.35; alkalosis: pH > 7.45. Respiratory = CO₂ imbalance; metabolic = acid or base gain/loss.

describe how the body compensates for acidosis and alkalosis

Respiratory compensation alters ventilation. Renal compensation adjusts H⁺ and HCO₃⁻ excretion.

explain how imbalances of pH are interrelated with imbalances of electrolytes and water balance

Acidosis leads to hyperkalemia (H⁺ in, K⁺ out); alkalosis leads to hypokalemia. Other electrolytes shift similarly.