BIOL 1021 Lab Final

Good Hypothesis

Testable, falsifiable, and based on prior knowledge or observation.

Measuring Effects on Daphnia

Monitor heart rate under a microscope before and after exposure; heart is visible on dorsal side behind the head.

Functional Group

Specific group of atoms responsible for characteristic chemical reactions.

7 Functional Groups

Hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, sulfhydryl, phosphate, methyl.

Benedict’s

Reducing sugars (orange-red)

Iodine

Starch (blue-black)

Sudan IV

Lipids (red layer)

Biuret

Proteins (purple)

Metric Conversion

Move decimal point based on unit steps (kilo ↔ milli).

Data Analysis

Mean = average; Median = middle; Mode = most frequent; Range = max - min.

Microscope Parts

Ocular = eyepiece, Objective = magnify, Stage = holds slide, Condenser = focuses light.

Plant vs. Animal Cells

Plant = eukaryotic, autotrophic; Animal = eukaryotic, heterotrophic.

Prokaryotic Shapes

Bacilli (rods), Spirilla (spirals), Cocci (spheres).

TEM Organelle ID

Look for nucleus, mitochondria, ER, etc.

Microscopic ID

Recognize Elodea (plant), Amoeba (protist), cheek cells (animal).

Dialysis Bag Results

Gains or loses mass depending on solute concentration.

Isotonic

no net movement

Hypertonic

cell shrinks

Hypotonic

cell swells

Temperature Effect

Higher temp increases diffusion rate.

Graph Shapes

Enzyme lowers activation energy, increases rate.

Enzyme Action

Lowers activation energy of reactions.

Denaturation Causes

High temp, extreme pH, heavy metals.

3 Needs for Function

Proper pH, temp, substrate.

Catechol Oxidase

Enzyme that oxidizes catechol → brown pigment.

More ATP

Aerobic respiration (up to 36 ATP) vs. fermentation (2 ATP).

Germinating Beans

Temperature increases due to cellular respiration.

Least Useful Pigment

Green; reflected, not absorbed.

Paper Chromatography

Separates pigments; used to analyze chloroplast content.

Chlorophyll Glow (Red)

Fluorescence from excited electrons.

Iodine Stain

Detects starch; indicates photosynthesis occurred.

O2/CO2 Sensors

O₂ produced, CO₂ consumed during photosynthesis.

Phases

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, cytokinesis (same for meiosis with I and II).

Cell Plate vs. Cleavage Furrow

Plant cells = cell plate; Animal = cleavage furrow; both in telophase/cytokinesis.

Crossing Over

Occurs in prophase I; homologous chromosomes exchange DNA.

Chromosome vs. Chromatid

Chromosome = single piece of DNA; chromatid = one of two identical parts.

Number Tracking

Chromosome/chromatid counts vary with mitosis/meiosis stages.

Haploid/Diploid

Gametes are haploid after meiosis.

Pedigree Analysis

Determine inheritance pattern (autosomal/sex-linked, dominant/recessive).

Drosophila Crosses

Use phenotypes to determine genotypes; observe offspring ratios.

Dihybrid Ratio

9:3:3:1 expected ratio.

Tobacco Seedlings

Use observed phenotype ratios to infer genotypes.

Sickle Cell Odds

Use Punnett squares with parent genotypes.

DNA Extraction

Mashing breaks cells; buffer dissolves membranes; cold ethanol precipitates DNA.

Gel Electrophoresis

Compares band patterns to detect sickle cell alleles.

H-W Terms

p² = homozygous dominant, 2pq = heterozygous, q² = homozygous recessive.

Finding p & q

Use q² to find q, then p = 1 - q.

Chi-Square

Compare observed vs. expected; use equation and table.

Genotype Frequency

Divide genotype counts by total population.