Studied by 0 people
(week 11 and week 12)
normative approach
study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones
developmental milestones
specific normative events (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty) that indicate typical progress in physical, cognitive, and social development.
continuous development
views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills
discontinuous development
development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages; change is more sudden
psychosexual development
process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life
psychosocial development
process proposed by Erikson in which social tasks are mastered as humans move through eight stages of life from infancy to adulthood
schemata
concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information
assimilation
taking in information that is comparable to what you already know
accommodation
when you change your schemata based on new information
Cognitive Theory of Development
Jean Piaget’s proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational
sensorimotor stage
first stage which lasts from birth to about 2 years old; children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.
object permanence
between 5 and 8 months old; the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists
stranger anxiety
same time as object permanence; a fear of unfamiliar people
preoperational stage
second stage from approximately 2 to 7 years old; children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play; they also start to use language, but not they cannot yet think logically about concrete events.
operational means “logical manipulation of information” so this is the preoperational stage because children at this age cannot yet do that
conservation
the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added
egocentrism
the child is not able to take the perspective of others
theory-of-mind
typically occurs between 3 and 5 years of age; when children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own
concrete operational stage
third stage between 7 and 11 years of age; children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies; they can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division; they master the concept of conservation
reversibility
objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition; understood by children in the concrete operational stage
formal operational stage
fourth and final stage, from age 11 to adulthood; children in the stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations; they can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions; in adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.
postformal stage
fifth stage of cognitive development proposed by developmental psychologists; decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts.
Sociocultural Theory of Development
proposed by Lev Vygotsky; suggested that human development is rooted in one’s culture; a child’s social world forms the basis for the formation of language and thought; the language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things is dependent on one’s cultural background.
Theory of Moral Development
proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, who built on Piaget’s work; moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages
stages of moral reasoning
process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development
the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9)
the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence)
post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve
prenatal development
three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal
zygote
structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta
mitosis
process of cell division
embryo
multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development
placenta
a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord
prenatal care
medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus
teratogen
any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus
critical/sensitive period
the time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop
newborn reflexes
inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation
blooming
period of rapid neural growth during infancy and toddlerhood when each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections
pruning
follows blooming; period when neural connections are reduced; pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills; continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain
motor skills
our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects
fine motor skills
focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions
gross motor skills
focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).
attachment
a long-standing connection or bond with others
secure base
a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings
attachment theory
developed by John Bowlby; defined attachment as “the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother”; Two things are needed for healthy attachment: the caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions
secure attachment
healthiest type; the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger; the attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress; securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.
avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)
the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs
resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent/resistant)
children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them; they do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child.
disorganized attachment
Children freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused
authoritative style
the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view; they set rules and explain the reasons behind them; they are flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases; most encouraged style in American society; American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills
authoritarian style
the parent places high value on conformity and obedience; parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth; they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience; this style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids; is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups
permissive style
the kids run the show and anything goes; parents make few demands and rarely use punishment; they tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent; children tend to lack self-discipline; style is negatively associated with grades; may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior especially among female children, and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children; children tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression
uninvolved style
parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands; these parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else; children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse
Temperament
innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment
easy temperaments: demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions
difficult temperaments: much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers
Adolescence
the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, or into the mid- to late 20s
adrenarche
the maturing of the adrenal glands
gonadarche
the maturing of the sex glands
primary sexual characteristics
organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males
secondary sexual characteristics
physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys
menarche
the beginning of menstrual periods
spermarche
the first ejaculation
emerging adulthood
a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love
fluid intelligence
information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time
crystallized intelligence
abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge; vocabulary tests, solving number problems, understanding texts, etc.
five stages of grief
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
