Lifespan Development

(week 11 and week 12)

normative approach

study of development using norms, or average ages, when most children reach specific developmental milestones

developmental milestones

specific normative events (e.g., crawling, walking, writing, dressing, naming colors, speaking in sentences, and starting puberty) that indicate typical progress in physical, cognitive, and social development.

continuous development

views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving on existing skills

discontinuous development

development takes place in unique stages: It occurs at specific times or ages; change is more sudden

psychosexual development

 process proposed by Freud in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different erogenous zones of the body as humans move through five stages of life

psychosocial development

process proposed by Erikson in which social tasks are mastered as humans move through eight stages of life from infancy to adulthood

schemata

concepts (mental models) that are used to help us categorize and interpret information

assimilation

taking in information that is comparable to what you already know

accommodation

when you change your schemata based on new information

Cognitive Theory of Development

Jean Piaget’s proposed a theory of cognitive development that unfolds in four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational

sensorimotor stage

first stage which lasts from birth to about 2 years old; children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior.

object permanence

between 5 and 8 months old; the understanding that even if something is out of sight, it still exists

stranger anxiety

same time as object permanence; a fear of unfamiliar people

preoperational stage

second stage from approximately 2 to 7 years old; children can use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas, which is why children in this stage engage in pretend play; they also start to use language, but not they cannot yet think logically about concrete events.

operational means “logical manipulation of information” so this is the preoperational stage because children at this age cannot yet do that

conservation

the idea that even if you change the appearance of something, it is still equal in size as long as nothing has been removed or added

egocentrism

the child is not able to take the perspective of others

theory-of-mind

typically occurs between 3 and 5 years of age; when children come to understand that people have thoughts, feelings, and beliefs that are different from their own

concrete operational stage

third stage between 7 and 11 years of age; children can think logically about real (concrete) events; they have a firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies; they can perform mathematical operations and understand transformations, such as addition is the opposite of subtraction, and multiplication is the opposite of division; they master the concept of conservation

reversibility

objects can be changed and then returned back to their original form or condition; understood by children in the concrete operational stage

formal operational stage

fourth and final stage, from age 11 to adulthood; children in the stage can deal with abstract ideas and hypothetical situations; they can use abstract thinking to problem solve, look at alternative solutions, and test these solutions; in adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs.

postformal stage

fifth stage of cognitive development proposed by developmental psychologists; decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, and logic is integrated with emotion as adults develop principles that depend on contexts.

Sociocultural Theory of Development

proposed by Lev Vygotsky; suggested that human development is rooted in one’s culture; a child’s social world forms the basis for the formation of language and thought; the language one speaks and the ways a person thinks about things is dependent on one’s cultural background. 

Theory of Moral Development

proposed by Lawrence Kohlberg, who built on Piaget’s work; moral development, like cognitive development, follows a series of stages

stages of moral reasoning

 process proposed by Kohlberg; humans move through three stages of moral development

• the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9)

• the capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence)

• post-conventional morality (once formal operational thought is attained), which only a few fully achieve

prenatal development

three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal

zygote

 structure created when a sperm and egg merge at conception; begins as a single cell and rapidly divides to form the embryo and placenta

mitosis

process of cell division

embryo

multi-cellular organism in its early stages of development

placenta

a structure connected to the uterus that provides nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the developing embryo via the umbilical cord

prenatal care

medical care during pregnancy that monitors the health of both the mother and the fetus

teratogen

any environmental agent—biological, chemical, or physical—that causes damage to the developing embryo or fetus

critical/sensitive period

the time during fetal growth when specific parts or organs develop

newborn reflexes

inborn automatic responses to particular forms of stimulation

blooming

period of rapid neural growth during infancy and toddlerhood when each neural pathway forms thousands of new connections

pruning

follows blooming; period when neural connections are reduced; pruning causes the brain to function more efficiently, allowing for mastery of more complex skills; continues through childhood and into adolescence in various areas of the brain

motor skills

our ability to move our bodies and manipulate objects

fine motor skills

focus on the muscles in our fingers, toes, and eyes, and enable coordination of small actions

gross motor skills

focus on large muscle groups that control our arms and legs and involve larger movements (e.g., balancing, running, and jumping).

attachment

a long-standing connection or bond with others

secure base

a parental presence that gives the child a sense of safety as he explores his surroundings

attachment theory

developed by John Bowlby; defined attachment as “the affectional bond or tie that an infant forms with the mother”; Two things are needed for healthy attachment: the caregiver must be responsive to the child’s physical, social, and emotional needs and the caregiver and child must engage in mutually enjoyable interactions

secure attachment

healthiest type; the toddler prefers his parent over a stranger; the attachment figure is used as a secure base to explore the environment and is sought out in times of stress; securely attached children have caregivers who are sensitive and responsive to their needs.

avoidant attachment (sometimes called insecure or anxious-avoidant)

the child is unresponsive to the parent, does not use the parent as a secure base, and does not care if the parent leaves. The toddler reacts to the parent the same way she reacts to a stranger. When the parent does return, the child is slow to show a positive reaction. Ainsworth theorized that these children were most likely to have a caregiver who was insensitive and inattentive to their needs

resistant attachment (also called ambivalent or anxious-ambivalent/resistant)

children tend to show clingy behavior, but then they reject the attachment figure’s attempts to interact with them; they do not explore the toys in the room, as they are too fearful. During separation in the Strange Situation, they became extremely disturbed and angry with the parent. When the parent returns, the children are difficult to comfort. Resistant attachment is the result of the caregivers’ inconsistent level of response to their child.

disorganized attachment

Children freeze, run around the room in an erratic manner, or try to run away when the caregiver returns. This type of attachment is seen most often in kids who have been abused

authoritative style

the parent gives reasonable demands and consistent limits, expresses warmth and affection, and listens to the child’s point of view; they set rules and explain the reasons behind them; they are flexible and willing to make exceptions to the rules in certain cases; most encouraged style in American society; American children raised by authoritative parents tend to have high self-esteem and social skills

authoritarian style

the parent places high value on conformity and obedience; parents are often strict, tightly monitor their children, and express little warmth; they consider the rules to be set, and they expect obedience; this style can create anxious, withdrawn, and unhappy kids; is as beneficial as the authoritative style in some ethnic groups

permissive style

the kids run the show and anything goes; parents make few demands and rarely use punishment; they tend to be very nurturing and loving, and may play the role of friend rather than parent; children tend to lack self-discipline; style is negatively associated with grades; may also contribute to other risky behaviors such as alcohol abuse, risky sexual behavior especially among female children, and increased display of disruptive behaviors by male children; children tend to have higher self-esteem, better social skills, and report lower levels of depression

uninvolved style

parents are indifferent, uninvolved, and sometimes referred to as neglectful; they don’t respond to the child’s needs and make relatively few demands; these parents may provide for the child’s basic needs, but little else; children raised in this parenting style are usually emotionally withdrawn, fearful, anxious, perform poorly in school, and are at an increased risk of substance abuse

Temperament

innate traits that influence how one thinks, behaves, and reacts with the environment

easy temperaments: demonstrate positive emotions, adapt well to change, and are capable of regulating their emotions

difficult temperaments: much more likely to challenge parents, teachers, and other caregivers

Adolescence

the period of development that begins at puberty and ends at emerging adulthood, or into the mid- to late 20s

adrenarche

the maturing of the adrenal glands

gonadarche

the maturing of the sex glands

primary sexual characteristics

organs specifically needed for reproduction, like the uterus and ovaries in females and testes in males

secondary sexual characteristics

physical signs of sexual maturation that do not directly involve sex organs, such as development of breasts and hips in girls, and development of facial hair and a deepened voice in boys

menarche

the beginning of menstrual periods

spermarche

the first ejaculation

emerging adulthood

a relatively newly defined period of lifespan development spanning from 18 years old to the mid-20s, characterized as an in-between time where identity exploration is focused on work and love

fluid intelligence

information processing abilities, such as logical reasoning, remembering lists, spatial ability, and reaction time

crystallized intelligence

abilities that draw upon experience and knowledge; vocabulary tests, solving number problems, understanding texts, etc.

five stages of grief

denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance