Psychology 202 Exam 1: UW Madison - Addington

Brain stem

-Connection to spinal cord

-Filters information flow between peripheral nervous system and the rest of the brain.

D2 receptors

-The dopamine receptors that the original antipsychotics bound to

-regulate self-control in frontal lobe

-Important point: might harm the individual's ability to make a good decision, perhaps to steal money from a parent to be able to afford a drug again

Myelin sheath

-A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons (insulation)

-enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

Sensory neurons

-neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

-afferent

-incoming information to the CNS

Motor neurons

-neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

-efferent

-outgoing information from CNS to muscles

Interneurons

-Central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

-Essentially connect sensory, motor, and other neurons

Glial cells

-cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

-formation of blood-barrier and myelin sheath

-supply nutrients to neurons

-support structure

Histology

the study of the microscopic structure of tissues

EEG (electroencephalogram)

-amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface

-waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

Nervous system

-the network of nerve cells and fibers that transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body

Central Nervous System (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal cord

PET scan (positron emission tomography)

-brain-imaging technique that reveals activity in various parts of the brain, based on patterns of blood flow, oxygen use, and glucose consumption

Division of the nervous system

central nervous system and peripheral nervous system

Division of the Peripheral Nervous System

somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system

Division of the automatic nervous system

sympathetic and parasympathetic

Threshold for an action potential is reached when ...(4-step process)

1. Sodium channels are activated and sodium ions move into the neuron

2. The interior of the neuron becomes more positively charged than the exterior

3. Potassium channels are activated, and potassium ions move out of the neuron

4. The interior of the neuron becomes more negatively charged than the exterior

Limitation of experimental method

participants know they are in a research study resulting in possibly skewed results

Reliability

-consistency of measurement

-the consistency of a measure, including test-retest, interrater, inter-method, and internal consistency

SSRIs

-selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors

-agonist

-treat depression, anxiety, OCD, eating disorders

-Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil

Damage to the midbrain would most likely result in...

changes in pain perception

The idea that a person's dominant hemisphere influences their creativity or ability to think logically is

a popular myth about lateralization

How do drugs classified as SSRIs, such as Prozac, alter neuronal communication?

They increase the effectiveness of the neurotransmitter serotonin by blocking its reuptake into the axon terminal.

Our primary method for localizing sound in the horizontal plane is

to compare the arrival time of sound at each ear

Why is it inaccurate to say that daydreaming is a "total waste of time"?

We often think about past experiences and plan our future when the DMN is active during daydreaming

How does the input of olfactory information to the brain differ from other sensory input pathways?

Direct connections to the thalamus are not made before information reaches the cortex.

Forebrain

-largest and most complicated region of the brain, including the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, and cerebrum

-critical for complex cognition, emotional, sensory, and motor functions

Broca's area

-Controls language expression/prodcution

- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's area

-controls language reception

- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

Parts of the brainstem include...

-Medulla

-Pons

-Reticular Formation

-Cerebellum

Operant conditioning

-a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

-pairs behavior and response

Classical conditioning

-type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

-pairs two stimuli

Operationalization

-the process of assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in a particular study

-first step is to identify the concept to be measured clearly (such as violence in video games)

-second step is the quaintirgaives measures of the concept (such as the measures to tell a violent video game from a non-violent video game)

Confounding variable

-factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

-situational confounds (such as noise in a laboratory during an experiment) the is an issue faced by the experimental method

Independent variable

-the experimental factor that is manipulated

-the variable whose effect is being studied

-controlled

Dependent variable

-measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested

-emphasis on MEASURABLE effect

Cross-sectional study

-a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

-used to asses the normal behaviors associated with age

-subject to the cohort effect (generational effects of having been born at a particular point in history)

Cohort effects (generation effects)

-refer to differences between age groups (or cohorts) caused by unique characteristics or experiences other than age

Survey

-a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group

-results are often influenced due to surveys being self-reported

Control group

-In an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment

-contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Descriptive methods

-case study

-survey

-naturalistic observation

(DON'T SHOW CAUSE/EFFECT)

-include case studies, surveys, and naturalistic observations

Science

-An organized way of gathering and analyzing evidence about the natural world

-learning about reality through systematic observation and experimentation

William James

Functionalism

Example of opioids

-heroin

-oxy

-morphine

Abraham Maslow

Hierarchy of needs; humanistic psychologist

Opioids

-activate receptors that usually respond to endorphins, increase dopamine activation, dual activation of dopamine and opiate receptors (which is why it is so addictive)

-very addictive

-heroin, oxy, morphine

Uric Neisser

-cognitive psychology

-cognitive revolution

Objectivity

-treating facts without influence from personal feelings or prejudices

Confirmation bias

-a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Biological and evolutionary psychology

Investigates the connections among mind, behavior, and biological processes, and asks how our evolutionary past continues to shape our behavior

Cognitive Psychology

investigates mental processes, including reasoning and thinking, problem solving, memory, perception, mental imagery, and language

Social and personality psychology

asks how our behavior is affected by the presence of others; recognizes that behavior varies around averages and that individual differences often interact with environments

Developmental psychology

investigates the normal changes in behavior that occur across the lifespan of an individual

Clinical psychology

-studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

-promotes general well-being

Longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

Mixed longitudinal study

A method for assessing age-related changes that combines the cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches by observing a cross-section of participants over a shorter period than is used typically in longitudinal studies.

Validity

-the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

***both reliability and validity are not subject to be dependent upon each other

Circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle

How does jet lag affect circadian rhythms?

largely caused by air travel across one or more time zones

Sleep terrors

-sleep disturbance characterized by an episode of increased physiological arousal, intense fear and panic, frightening hallucinations, and no recall of the episode the next morning

- typically occurs during stage 3 or stage 4 NREM sleep

-also called night terrors.

Insomnia

-recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Narcolepsy

-sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks

-sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

What are sone type fo brain damage that affect consciousness?

-coma

-vegetative state

-brain death

-near death

-seziures

-prosopagnosia

Coma

-results from damage to both cerebral hemispheres or to the reticular formation

-produces a profound state of unconsciousness in which the person does not have sleep-wake cycles, cannot be awakened, does not respond to pain or light, and is incapable of voluntary behavior

Vegetative state (VS)

an abnormal state following brain injury featuring wakefulness without consciousness

Near-death experience (pertaining to the brain)

An altered state of consciousness reported by people who were close to death because of cardiac or other medical problems that features out-of-body experiences, light-at-the-end-of-a-tunnel perceptions, and a state of calmness

Prosopagnosia

-condition that affects a person's ability to recognize faces

-results from damage to a part of the temporal lobes on the bottom of the brain known as the fusiform face area (FFA)

Why does drug tolerance occur?

-The nervous system seeks to maintain homeostasis, a steady internal balance or equilibrium

-When a person takes a drug repeatedly, the nervous system attempts to compensate for the drug's effects

-These compensations are both biological and learned

Seziure

An abnormal level of brain activation with a sudden onset

Tolerance

The need to administer greater quantities of a drug to achieve the same subjective effect

Psychoactive drugs

Chemicals/drugs that affect the nervous system and result in altered consciousness

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

-electrical charge difference between the inside and outside of a neuron

-in a resting state, the electrical charge inside the neuron is slightly more negative than the outside

Depolarization

1. excitatory signal

2. channel opens in cell membranes allow sodium in

3. sodium rushes into the neuron

4. charge inside neuron becomes more positive

Excitatory signals

-depolarize the cell membrane, increasing the likelihood that the neuron will fire

Hyperpolarization

-The movement of the membrane potential of a cell away from rest potential in a more negative direction.

1. inhibitory signal

2. Sodium channels less likely to allow sodium into the neuron

Inhibitory signals

-hyperpolarize the cell, decreasing the likelihood that the neuron will fire

What occurs at the synapse?

action potential results in release of neurotransmitter at the synapse

Neurotransmitters

-chemicals that are stored in sacs in the axon terminals which neurons use to send messages across synapses

-essentially chemical communication across neurons

4 categories of Neurotransmitters

-acetylcholine

-amino acids

-monoamines

-neuropeptides

Monoamines

-affect, arousal, motivation

-Norepinephrine & Dopamine & Serotonin

Examples of monoamines

-norepinephrine: arousal, vigilance, eating behavior

-dopamine: reward, motivation

-serotonin: impulsiveness

Amino acids

-general excitatory and inhibitory transmitter

-building block of protein

-GABA & Glutamate

Examples of amino acids

-glutamate: enhances action potentials, learning, and memory

-GABA: anxiety, intoxication

Peptides

-modulate neurotransmission

-Substance P, Endorphins, CCK

Examples of peptides modulators

-substance P: pain perception

-endorphins: pain reduction, reward

-CCK: learning and memory, satiety

Acetylcholine (Ach)

-motor control and mental processes

-regulates attention, memory, and sleep

-Shortage= low levels in Alzheimer's patients

-Excess= muscle spasms

Norepinephrine (NE)

-increases physiological arousal

-shortage= depression

-excess= mania

Serotonin (5-HT)

-physiological arousal

-role in schizophrenia

-aggression (serotonin = low)

-sleep-wakefullness

-shortage= depression

-excess= mania

Dopamine (DA)

-movement

-motivation, reward, pleasure

-shortage= depression

-excess: schizophrenia

-linked with Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease

-tracts of dopamine neurons degenerate in basal ganglia, lead to abnormal low levels in brain

-leads to difficulties with movement

Endorphins

-natural pain relievers; calmness, pleasure

-act within pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain

-"runner's high"

-shortage= chronic pain; difficulty with set-soothing

-bind to same sites as heroin & morphine

Substance P (SP)

-pain perception

-vasodilation, inflammation

-mood disorders

-anxiety, stress

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

-drugs that mimic GABA used to treat anxiety and insomnia

-inhibits (relaxes): inhibits sending neuron

-shortage= anxiety, epilepsy, Huntington's disease

-excess= unmotivated

Huntington's disease

-fatal genetic disorder that causes the progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain

-deteriorates a person's physical and mental abilities during their prime working years and has no cure

Glutamate

-excitatory

-helps learning and memory: increased speed of synaptic connections

Agonist

-a molecule that, by binding to a receptor site, stimulates a response

-increases/amplifies effect of neurotransmitters

Antagonist

decreases/de-amplifies/blocks effect of neurotransmitter

Types of Psychoactive Drugs

1. Depressants

2. Stimulants

3. Hallucinogens

Examples of psychoactive drugs

-Tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline, clomipramine)

-SSRI's (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil)

-Antipsychotics (Haldol, Risperdal)

-Alcohol, sedatives

-Amphetamines, cocaine

-Nicotine

-Benzodiazepines (Valium, Xanax)

-Hallucinogenics (LSD)

-Marijuana

Tricyclic Antidepressants (TCAs)

-agonist

-treatment for depression, ADHD, and chronic pain

-inhibit reuptake of norepinephrine