Research Methods

What are ethics in the context of research?

Standards that guide us to identify good and acceptable conduct.

What are the four core values of the National Statement?

Beneficence, Justice, Respect for Humans, Research Merit and Integrity.

What rights do participants have based on ethical values?

Confidentiality, Informed consent, Voluntary participation, Protection, Right to withdraw.

What is the role of a research ethics committee?

• To decide whether research proposals are ethically sound

• Ensure researchers are qualified

• Hold researchers accountable

• Deal with complaints

• Monitor ongoing research

What does 'protection from harm' entail in research ethics?

Participants protected during research from physical and psychological harm

What is the purpose of debriefing in research?

To lower the risk of harm to participants after the research has concluded.

What is privacy in the context of research ethics?

A person's right to control access to their personal information, governed by the Privacy Act 1988.

What are the key aspects of confidentiality in research?

Maintaining the privacy of information disclosed, using it only for research purposes, and ensuring it is not disclosed without mutual agreement.

What measures must be taken to maintain confidentiality?

Store securely, do not disclose information, ensure proper disposal, avoid identifying participants in reports, and use codes for identification.

What is anonymity in research?

The right to remain nameless, ensuring no identifiable information is collected.

What does voluntary participation mean?

Participants have the right to take part without pressure or coercion, and consent must be based on full information.

What is the right to withdraw in research?

Participants must be able to withdraw at any stage for any reason without negative consequences.

What is informed consent?

Approval to participate in research based on sound knowledge of the nature of the research, benefits, risks, and expectations.

What additional safeguards are required for participants who cannot consent?

Guardians may consent, but participants must still verbally consent, and research must halt if discomfort is shown.

What is deception in psychological research?

Intentional non-disclosure of the purpose behind the research, which must be followed by debriefing.

When is deception in research typically approved?

Only if there are no other alternatives available.

What are mandated behaviors in research?

Actions that are required to ensure ethical treatment and research practices.

What is a conclusion in research?

A decision about what the results obtained in research mean, typically reported as whether the hypothesis was supported.

What must support a conclusion in research?

Empirical evidence obtained during the research.

What is the importance of reporting the R-value in research conclusions?

It indicates the strength of the relationship between variables; for example, a very weak R-value suggests caution in interpretation.

What is generalizability in research?

A judgment about the extent to which the results of a study can be applied to other situations or populations.

What factors can decrease generalizability?

A small, biased, or unrepresentative sample from the population of interest.

How can generalizability be increased in research?

By using appropriate sampling techniques and taking an appropriate sample size.

What is reliability in research?

The extent to which results from a research study are consistent, dependable, and stable.

What is validity in research?

The extent to which the research measures what it is intended to measure.

What are the two types of validity?

Internal validity and external validity.

What does internal validity refer to?

Whether the results of a study are due to the manipulation of the independent variable and not other factors.

What does external validity refer to?

Whether the results can be generalized to other settings, populations, and over time.

What is inter-rater reliability?

The degree to which different observers give consistent measures of the same phenomenon.

What is the difference between repeatability and reproducibility?

Repeatability refers to closeness of results under the same conditions, while reproducibility refers to results under different conditions.

What are limitations in research?

Faults in the study that may affect results and their generalizability.

What should be included when discussing limitations of a study?

Confounding variables, sampling limitations, lack of data, measurement problems, and cultural biases.

What are ethical implications in research?

The impacts a study may have on the population, theory, and future research.

What is socially sensitive research (SSR)?

Research that may have potential social consequences for participants or groups represented.

What are the four considerations for planning socially sensitive research according to Sieber and Stanly?

Research question, methodology, institutional context, and interpretation/application of findings.

What is a confounding variable?

A variable that may affect the dependent variable and lead to incorrect conclusions.

What is the role of communication in the scientific method?

It allows research to be critically reviewed and flaws to be identified.

What is the significance of using control groups in research?

To determine if the independent variable influenced the dependent variable.

What is the importance of citing others' research in conclusions?

To provide evidence that supports your conclusions.

What should researchers avoid when stating conclusions?

Overstating or misrepresenting the findings.

Why is it important to report the population and sample in research?

To clarify the applicability of the results and potential limitations.

What is the relationship between sample size and generalizability?

Larger sample sizes generally increase generalizability, but cost may limit this.

What is the purpose of suggesting improvements after stating limitations?

To address the identified issues and enhance the validity and reliability of future research.

What is the significance of ethical considerations in research publication?

To protect participants' confidentiality and ensure responsible use of research findings.

Systematic Data Collection

Data must be collected in a systematic fashion and displayed in a way which communicates relationships clearly.

Tables

Tables and data summarize data such that it is easier to examine for trends.

Good Table Rules

A clear title for the table; this and the subheadings focus on the research questions.

Clear Subheadings

Clear subheadings for columns and rows, with terms used explained sufficiently.

Units in Subheadings

Units used are stated clearly in subheadings, not in cells.

Explanatory Notes

Explanatory notes provided if necessary.

Cell Separation

Cells separated by ruled lines and data in neat columns.

Frequency Tables

Displays a number of categories (in ascending or descending order), along with a tally of how often it was observed, and the total frequency.

Summary Tables

Displays the condensed data, usually in the form of statistic such as the mean, range and standard deviation.

Line Graphs

Used for data which is continuous (can take any given range - e.g. height).

Comparing Groups Over Time

Very useful for comparing groups over time - plot multiple sets of data on one set of axis.

Bar Graphs

Used for data where the variable on the x axis is not continuous but discrete/categorical (each data point falls into one distinct category).

Bar Graph Characteristics

Columns (up and down), Bars (sideways) - separated by a space.

Bar Graph Usage

Bars work well when titles are lengthy or there are many categories; Columns work well when there are fewer numbers of are negative.

Histograms

Column graph where x-axis represents a continuous variable (e.g. scores on a test, months of the year), so the bars touch each other.

Scatterplots

Represent two sets of continuous variables.

Individual Representation in Scatterplots

Often each point represents an individual.

Correlation Study

Used to study correlations between variables, e.g. handspan and intelligence score.

Lines of Best Fit

Lines of best fit may be used and correlation coefficients quoted.

Correlation Coefficient

A correlation is a statistical term which indicates the strength of the relationships between two measurements.

Pearsons Correlation Coefficient

The Pearsons correlation coefficient (R-value) is a number which describes the strength and direction of the relationship.

Correlation Values

0 = No correlation; -1 = Perfect negative correlation; +1 = Perfect positive correlation.

What is the role of participants in psychological research?

Participants are the people who take part in the research procedure and provide data.

What is a population in the context of research?

A population is a group to whom researchers want to apply the findings of the research.

What is a sample in psychological research?

A sample is a subset of a population that is representative and studied for research purposes.

What is the process of selecting a sample from a population called?

Sampling.

Why is obtaining a representative sample important?

It allows the results to be generalized to the rest of the population of interest.

What are the four participant selection techniques in sampling?

Convenience, Snowball, Random, and Stratified sampling.

What is convenience sampling?

A sampling method that uses people from the target population who are readily available and willing to participate.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of convenience sampling?

Advantages: Easy, quick, and inexpensive to obtain. Disadvantages: Unlikely to be representative and may be biased.

What is snowball sampling?

A method where current participants help recruit future subjects for the research study.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of snowball sampling?

Advantages: Access to hidden populations, more time-efficient, and cheaper. Disadvantages: May not be representative and likely to be biased.

What is random sampling?

A method that ensures everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected.

What are the steps involved in random sampling?

1. Set up a sampling frame. 2. Assign identity numbers. 3. Use a random selection procedure.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling?

Advantages: Sample should be representative and unbiased. Disadvantages: Difficult to implement and may still not be representative.

What is stratified sampling?

A method that ensures certain subgroups in the population are represented in the sample.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling?

Advantages: Highly representative of the target population. Disadvantages: Difficult to implement due to the need for detailed population information.

What is stratified random sampling?

A combination of stratified sampling and random sampling, where the population is divided into strata and then randomly sampled.

What is random allocation in research?

A method where individuals in the sample are equally likely to be assigned to any group in the procedure.

Why is random allocation important?

It helps eliminate bias due to participant variables.

What is an independent measures design?

A design where different groups are used for the experimental and control groups.

What is a repeated measures design?

A design where the same group is used in both the experimental and control conditions.

What is a matched pair design?

A design that uses two different groups matched on important characteristics.

What are experimenter effects?

When the researcher unconsciously influences participants through their behavior or bias.

What are demand characteristics?

Cues in the experimental procedure that give away the purpose of the research, influencing participant behavior.

What is the placebo effect?

A phenomenon where participants experience positive effects due to their belief in the treatment.

What are some methods to minimize extraneous and confounding variables?

Random allocation, placebos, single-blind and double-blind procedures, and standardization of procedures.

What is a single-blind procedure?

A method where participants are unaware of whether they are in the control or experimental group.

What is a double-blind procedure?

A method where neither the participants nor the experimenters know which group participants are in.

What is a randomized controlled trial (RCT)?

A form of double-blind procedure where participants are randomized into the placebo or control group.

What is standardization of procedures in research?

Ensuring all participants are treated the same way to minimize extraneous variables.

What is the purpose of experimental designs?

To test whether a change in one variable affects another.

How can experimental designs provide evidence of correlation?

With proper design, they can show that two variables have a relationship.

What can long-term experimental designs support?

Causation, indicating that the independent variable (IV) caused results in the dependent variable (DV).

What is the definition of an experimental design?

A design where a researcher manipulates an independent variable (IV) to see the effect on a dependent variable (DV).

What types of data do experimental designs produce?

Quantitative data for analysis.