Chapter 2: How Sociologists do Research

concrete experience

obtained by the 5 senses (see/touch/taste/smell/hearing/)

abstract experience

imaginary world of the mind

concepts

are abstracts terms used to organize concrete experience

proposition

are ideas that result from finding the relationship between concepts

biases

systematic tendency to reach a certain type of conclusion or judgement

pseudoscience

an activity resembling science but based on fallacious assumptions (not meet scientific method standards)

objectivity

assessed by the degree of consistency between the observations of independent observers

positivists

assume that social realities are objective and are best studied through quantitiative research methods

interpretivists

assume that social realities are subjectively constructed and are best studied through qualitative reasearch methods

deductive reasoning

begins with general ideas and proceeds to test their validity on specific cases

inductive reasoning

begins with concrete cases and proceeds to identify general patterns and themes

informed consent

consent by a patient to undergo a medical or surgical treatment or to participate in an experiment after the patient understands the risks involved

anonymity

occurs when the researcher cannot make a connection between respondents and evidence

confidentiality

occurs when the researcher can make a connection between respondents and evidence but agrees not to do so.

debriefing

involves interviewing participants after a study

operationalization

is the process of translating concepts into variable and propositions into hypothesis

variable

measure of a concept that has more than one value or score

hypothesis

testable form of a proposition

independent variable

presumed cause in a cause-and-effect relationship

dependent variable

presumed effect in a cause-and-effect relationship

experiment

carefully controlled artificial situation that allows researchers to isolate hypothesized causes and measure their effects precisely

randomization

is an experimental assigns individuals to the experimental or control group by chance processes. Randomization ensures that the two groups are alike in all respects

experimental group

is the group that is exposed to the independent variable

control group

group that is not exposed to the independent variable

validity

degree to which results reflect reality

reliability

degree to which procedures yield results

survey

sociologists ask respondents questions about their knowledge face-to-face or over the phone

sample

part of the population of research interest that is selected for analysis

population

entire group about which the researcher wants to generalize

probability sample

units have a known and nonzero chance of being selected

control variable

identifies the context of the relationship between independent variable and dependent variable

spurious

relationship between an independent variable and a dependent variable. when a control variable is associated with change in both the independent and dependent variables

official statistics

data that are collected and analyzed by government agencies

purposive sampling

involves researcher's best judgment to locate members of the population of interest

snowball smapling

relies on existing participants to suggest additional subjects who might be willing to participate

reactivity

occurs when the presence of a researcher causes the observed people to conceal certain thing or act artificially to impress the researcher

key informants

community members who are willing and able to provide credible information about organizatino's culture issues, and activities

structured interviews

follow carefully crafted protocols to aquire the respondent's view on predetermined subjects

unstructured (semi-structured) interviews

resemble conversations with predefined themes and topics, allow respondents to answer questions in their own words

exploratory

research that seeks to formulate theories about the subject of interest rather than test theories in rigorous manner of quantitative research

focus group

group of interviews in which a smaller number of individuals discuss a specific issue under the guidance of a moderator

authenticity

extent to which qualitative investigation captures social realities as experienced by insiders

mixed methods

combine qualitative and quantitative methods in a single study

digital sociology

uses digital technology as both a tool and a subject of research

nonreative

methods involve studying social life without affecting the behaviour of the people involved the subjects involve

social desirability bais

is error that results from respondents' tendencies to answer in ways that will make them look favorable to the researcher