Anthropology 2

Sociological Race

A social construct based on perceived physical differences used to categorize and rank people; has no biological basis but real social effects (e.g., discrimination).

Biological Race

The idea that humans can be divided into distinct biological groups; rejected by science because human genetic variation is continuous, not discrete.

Ethnicity

Shared cultural traits such as language, religion, traditions, or nationality; unlike race, it’s based on culture rather than biology.

Ancestry

Biological lineage or genetic heritage traced through one’s forebears; can influence some genetic traits but doesn’t define race.

Structural Inequality

Systemic, institutionalized disparities in wealth, power, and access (e.g., unequal education or healthcare systems).

Intersectionality

The overlapping of social categories (e.g., race, gender, class) that create interconnected systems of advantage and disadvantage.

Archaeology

The study of past human life through material remains such as artifacts, buildings, and landscapes.

Fieldwork

The process of collecting archaeological data directly from sites through surveys, excavations, and observations.

Survey

A method of systematically walking or scanning an area to locate archaeological sites before excavation.

Excavation

The controlled digging of an archaeological site to uncover and record artifacts and features in their context.

Material Culture

The physical objects, resources, and spaces that people use to define their culture (e.g., tools, pottery, buildings).

Artifact

Any object made or modified by humans (e.g., stone tools, pottery).

Ecofact

Natural remains related to human activity, such as animal bones, seeds, or pollen.

Radiocarbon Dating

A method of determining the age of organic materials by measuring the decay of carbon-14; useful up to about 50,000 years.

Hunter-Gatherers

People who obtain food by foraging, hunting, and fishing rather than farming; typically mobile and live in small groups.

Pastoralist

People who rely primarily on herding domesticated animals (e.g., cattle, goats, sheep) for food and livelihood.

Horticulture

Small-scale, low-intensity farming using hand tools and shifting plots; often includes mixed crops.

Agriculture

Large-scale, intensive crop and livestock production using permanent fields, plows, and irrigation.

Paleobotany

The study of ancient plant remains to understand diets, environments, and agricultural practices

Zooarchaeology

The study of animal remains from archaeological sites to understand human–animal relationships and diet.

Domestication

The process of altering wild plants and animals through selective breeding for human benefit.

Changes to Domesticated Plants/Animals

→ Plants: larger seeds, thinner husks.
→ Animals: smaller size, reduced aggression, changes in coloration or body shape.

Why Domestication?

To ensure reliable food sources, support population growth, and create surplus for trade and storage.

Primary Centers of Domestication

Original areas where domestication first occurred (e.g., Fertile Crescent, China, Mesoamerica).

Secondary Centers of Domestication

Regions where domesticated species spread and were further modified (e.g., Europe, Africa).

Consequences of Domestication

Sedentary life, population growth, inequality, disease spread, and the rise of cities and states.

City/Urbanism

Large, permanent settlements with dense populations, specialized labor, and centralized institutions.

Teotihuacan

Ancient city in central Mexico (c. 100 BCE–550 CE); known for its grid layout, pyramids, and role as a major urban and religious center.

Angkor Wat

Massive temple complex in Cambodia built by the Khmer Empire; reflects advanced engineering and religious urbanism.

State

A political organization with centralized authority, social hierarchy, and formal governance systems.

Hierarchy

A ranked social system where individuals or groups have unequal access to resources and power