PSYC 305 - Chapter 5 (Early Approaches to Psychology)

Who is Wilhelm Wundt?

He is generally recognized as the German physiologist who established the world’s first psychology lab in 1879.

He completed his postdoctoral training with Hermann von Helmholtz, who had pioneered research in metabolism with his conservation of energy within the body, as well as vision research, specifically the tri-chromatic theory of vision. Wundt eventually established himself as an independent researcher, supporting himself and his work by writing textbooks.

Why was Wundt considered the father of psychology when others before him had already paved the road?

Wundt was known as the father because he intentionlly and deliberatly promoted the field of psychology, although Fechner was known as the originator of the field.

What did promoting the field of psychology mean for Wundt?

Promoting it as a scientific discipline. He disagreed with anyone who suggested that psychology could not be considered a science or could not be studied experimentally.

Where did Wundt start his first psychological lab and would did his work focus on?

Leipzig, Germany

Much of his work focussed on sensation and perception.

In 1858, he wrote the book Contributions to the Theory of Sensation and Perception, which outlined experimental fundamentals and was the first to use the term ‘experimental psychology’.

Briefly describe Wundt’s role as a professor.

Wundt became a professor of philosophy at the University of Leipzig and would remain there for the next 45 years. His lecture hall became more like a theatre with a magic lantern (similar to the modern projectors we use in class), and would draw crowds of 600 students.

What did Wundt’s research begin with?

It began with an interest in reaction time, specifically the attempt to test whether one person can perceive two stimuli at the same time. He was influenced by physiology researchers such as von Helmholtz and Müller.

Wundt’s methodology involved the use of a complication pendulum. The pendulum would swing and cross a demarcation line, while hitting a bell. The stimuli were the sound of a bell, and the sight of a pendulum crossing the line. The test subject (or participant) was himself.

What was the result of Wundt’s tests on reaction time?

One cannot attend to two stimuli simultaneously. He found that both stimuli register sequentially. He did test this on other participants and found that it took approximately 1/8th of a second for both stimuli to register.

What did Wundt conclude regarding reactions and consciousness?

Consciousness hold only a single thought, a single perception.

What did Wundt believe about attention?

He became determined that testing must stress selective attention. If we are only able to attend to one sitmulus, then attention must be selective. Given that attention is limited, we must focus on the task at hand. There is an element of volition to selectively attending to a stimulus.

What did Wundt research next?

More subjective experiences.

What does the emphasis on intentionality and vilition (wilfulness) bring about?

The first school of thought in psychology: voluntarism

What is a school of thought?

In this context, a school is a group of indiviudals sharing common assumptions, thoughts, and methodologies.

When we divide psychology into behaviorism, or cognition, or social, these are different schools.

Why was Wundt’s school known as voluntarism?

Because it focused on the volition or will of the individual, again if attention was selective then there is a fecision amde to attend to the stimulus.

The mind has the capacity to organize mental elements into higher-level thought, there is willfulness in organizing thought, this is not a passive process as the empiricists suggested. In fact, Wundt believed that volition was missing from the empiricist perspective and he opposed materialism because he believed that consciousness could not be derived from physical qualities of a stimulus.

What was more important for Wundt regarding the mind?

The activity of the mind rather than the contents.

What was the goal of psychology for Wundt?

To understand both simple (basic processes of the mind) and complex (higher mental processes) conscious phenomena.

For simple phenomena, experimentation could be used; however, for complex phenomena, such as language and cultural interactions, only various forms of naturalistic observation should be used.

This is the beginning of division within the field, as experimental psychology and social psychology, that still perpetuates to this day.

What did Wundt create to study more complex phenomena (with a particular interest in language)?

Völkerpsychologie.

Wundt believed that in order to get a fuller understanding of people, we needed to study how they interact with each other in social and cultural settings.

What is the English version of Völkerpsychologie?

Edward Titchener, one of Wundt’s students, translated these works in the early 20th century, and referred to it as “social psychology”, though there is no true English word for Völkerpsychologie.

What are the 3 main areas of research in Völkerpsychologie?

1. Language: this was the social aspects of language, how it’s acquired and how it’s used in terms of social behavior

2. Arts: including myths and religion

3. Customs: cultural norms and established law

Wundt would actually spend the last 20 years of his life writing about the social side of psychology, which would culminate in a 10-volume work.

How did Wundt differentiate psychology from the ‘hard sciences’?

Hard sciences like physics would concern themselves with the mediate experience which was collecting information about something outside the elements of experience, often with the use of instruments.

Psychology, however, would concern itself with the immediate experience, or conscious processes of people. This would be the world of experience in the moment.

The difference between the two being that mediate implies using a thermometer to quantify how cold it is outside, whereas immediate requires you going outside and feeling the cold.

What were the main goals in experimentation for Wundt?

To discover the basic elements of thought as well to discover the laws by which mental elements combine and form more complex mental experiences.

The elements of the experience were more important because without the elements, the mind would have nothing to organize.

How does a researcher study the basic mental processes involved in experience?

You have to ask someone about their experience. This method is known as introspection or examination of one’s own mental state to inspect and report on personal thoughts or feelings.

How did Wundt make introspection more appropriate for the lab?

He devised experimental introspection, which did not ask open ended questions about consciousness, but rather it was conducted under Wundt’s explicit rules and conditions, by highly trained observers.

Wundt required his subjects to have intense training in how to introspect properly and did not consider them fully trained until they had reported 10,000 introspections.

The idea was that if a person did it often enough, they could start reporting elements automatically without letting representations get in the way.

What were Wundt’s 4 rules for experimentation?

1. Observers must know when the procedure will begin

2. Observers must be ‘in a state of readiness or strained attention’

3. The observation must be repeatable numerous times (therefore replicable with other participants, even other labs)

4. The experimental conditions must be varied in terms of control over stimulus manupulation (if you are expecting people to intropsect based on the presented stimuli, then you need to vary the stimulus)

What were the 2 forms of conscious experience Wundt believed in?

1. Sensation (whenever a sense organ is stimulated and the resulting impulses reach the brain. sensations can be described in terms of modality (auditory,visual,etc) and intensity)

2. Feelings (the subjective interpretation of ensations, but do not arise directly from a sense organ)

Feelings accompany sensations.

Through experimenting with a metronome, Wundt discovered that certain feelings were elicited within him, based on the speed and intensity.

What is the Tri-Dimensional Theory of Feelings?

Feelings could be categorized in terms of the degree at which they possess three attributes.

What are the 3 attributes feelings can possess?

1. Pleasant/unpleasant continuum — how pleasant or agreeable a sensation was (certain rhuthms, rates of speed)

2. Strain/relaxation — anticipation of a sensation that will come (sound), and relief after sensation has occurred

3. Excitement/calm — feelings of slight happiness with faster sounds, depression with slow sounds

How did Wundt test this with the metronome?

You can listen to the different metronome speeds.

In terms of sensation, the modality would be auditory, and the participant can also evaluate pitch, timbre, and speed.

In terms of feelings, participant can answer whether the sound was pleasont or unpleasant. Did it evoke excitement or calm? Did it make you feel strained or relaxed?

This was the level of introspection that Wundt required. Participants were asked questions that could be answered with yes/no responses. Basically, this level of introspection, tapped into the conscious, immediate experience but did not ask openended questions. This allowed easier, somewhat more objective, measures (though many would argue that it was too subjective).

Did Wundt believe that sensations and feelings happened in isolation?

No.

When we have immediate experiences, they are usually made up of many different elements leading to perception.

What are Perception & Apperception?

Perception is a passive provess contingent on associations that are formed due to physical stimulation, a person’s anatomical makeup, and even past experiences making up our perceptual field.
When we are aware of perception, it becomes apperception.

Herbart had discussed the apperceptive mass as sensations coming into our conscious awareness. Similarly, the part of the perceptual field that the person attends to is apperceived.

Apperception is not passive.

What did Wundt suggest regarding perceptions?

That perceptions have a unity or wholeness to them. This was opposite to the passive, mechanical associationism of most of the British empiricists. This will serve as a precursor to the tenet of gestalt that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

What did creative synthesis mean to Wundt?

This meant a creative synthesis where the elements which are attended to can be arranged and rearranged as the person wills, and these different arrangements can lead to new experiences with the same stimuli.

What is Apperception?

Active process of associating elements into a whole concept, which often leads to emergent qualities (creative synthesis).

Some examples:

• In other sciences like chemistry: Hydrogen and oxygen are gases, odourless, colourless, put them together in right combination and right situation, you get water, which looks nothing like the gases. Individual notes make up a melody that is more than simply the notes.

• In psychology: Add light of different colours together to get white.

Why did the fate of Wundt’s psychology take a turn for the worse?

The German economy was collapsing after their defeat in WWI. Although Wundt’s ideas spread rapidly, they did not have long term effects on psychology, Many researchers will argue against introspection because they felt that they cannot always yield similar results and these results cannot be settled by repeating the experiment.

Edward Bradford Titchener attempted to bring some of Wundt’s ideas to the US, but they were not well received in pragmatic America.

How did Edward Titchener begin his career in psychology?

Titchener traveled to Leipzig to learn the “new psychology” from Wundt and mastered experimental methods, earning a PhD from the University of Leipzig in 1892, completing a dissertation on the binocular effects of monocular stimulation.

What occurred when Titchener returned to England?

When he returned to England, he wish to become the English pioneer of Wundt’s psychology, yet his colleagues were skeptical of taking a scientific approach to philosophical issues so he left England.

Where did Titchener go and what did he do?

Titchener went to America and began a long career at Cornell University from 1893-1927. His brain is still on display at Cornell.

From 1893-1900 he established a lab, conducted research, and wrote over 60 scholarly articles. He supervised more than 50 doctoral candidates and built his system of structuralism.

What error do a lot of books make regarding Wundt and Titchener?

Many books seem to mix them up, and that is likely because Titchener attempted to translate Wundt’s work and meld it into something that would be better suited for America, but voluntarism and structuralism are very different.

What did Titchener believe Psychology should be?

Titchener believed psychology should be the study and analysis of the basic elements of conscious experience.

How do Titchener and Wundt differ?

Titchener believed in an atomistic perspective of consciousness that is not shared by Wundt.

Wundt believed that the mind had the power to organize mental activities voluntarily through apperception.

What was Titchener not interested in regarding psychology?

He was not interested in applied aspects of psychology, just discovering the structure of consciousness. For this, the only testable participants were ‘normal’, healthy adults.

What is Consciousness according to Titchener?

Consciousness is the sum of our experiences as they exist at a given time. Therefore, consciousness was made up of all the elements present at any given moment.

What does Structuralism focus on?

Structuralism focused on the ‘structural’ elements of consciousness. The mind, Titchener believed, was the sum of our experiences accumulated over a lifetime.

What three essential needs for studying psychology as a science did Titchener outline?

The What: to reduce conscious processes to the simplest components. Structuralism followed the natural sciences’ rule of first understanding the elements before beginning to analyze it further.

The How: Determine the laws by which elements are combined.

The Why: Connect the elements with their physiological conditions.

What 3 categories (classes) did Titchener divide mental elements into? (refers to the ‘what’ need)

3 Elementary Mental States of Consciousness

1. Sensations — sight, sound, smell, etc (presence of a lemon will stimulate the senses)

2. Images / Element of an Idea — lemon is not physically present, but you can imagine it

3. Affective States — elements of emotion such as love, hate, sadness

What are the 5 attributes mental elements have to allow us to distinguish them?

These attributes are things that people can introspect about, and they are present to some degree in all experiences:

1. The Quality or Characteristics

2. The Intensity: the sensation’s strength

3. The Duration: the course of sensation over time

4. Clearness: the role of attention in conscious experience

5. Extensity: spread out over space

What is the difference between sensations and images, and affective states regarding the 5 attributes?

Sensations and images both have all five attributes.

However, affective states only have three because they lack clearness and extensity.

What is impossible according to Titchener?

It is impossible to focus attention to an affective state without it disappearing, or at least altering it.

What theory of Wundt’s did Titchener deny?

Wundt’s tri-dimensional theory of feelings.

Titchener suggested that all feelings are really just a variant of pleasant or unpleasant.

How would Titchener collect reports on sensations, images, and affective states?

He would have participants introspect. His introspection was more complicated than Wundt’s and required more information rather than just yes/no responses.

What did introspection for Tichener require?

Titchener’s laboratory required the subject to describe the basic, raw, elemental experiences that form complex cognitive experiences.

This meant that participants were confusing the mental process with the object they were observing and possibly letting past experience influence an introspective report. Describing the lemon could include the brightness, smell, texture, and shape they are experiencing, but merely calling it a lemon was quite useless. were

What did Titchener report in his book “An Outline of Psychology” (1896)?

He reported over 44,000 elements of sensation; each is conscious, each is distinct from all others, and each could combine with others to form perceptions and ideas.

He found 32,820 visual sensations, 11,600 auditory, and 4 taste or other sensory modalities.

What types of laws did Titchener seek to determine?

He wanted to determine laws by which elements combine.

This would be the How of Psychology: How do mental elements combine to form complex mental processes?

He rejected Wundt’s creative synthesis and apperception and favoured traditional associationism, hich follows the basic law of contiguity,

What led to attention for Titchener?

Salience of the stimulus.

It was not an active mind that purposely selected where to attend to, or what to apperceive.

What was the Why aspect of Psychology for Titchener?

The why of psychology, or connecting the elements with their physiological conditions, is basically the mind-body connection.

Titchener was not very clear about his stance. Sometimes he suggested, similar to Leibniz, psychophysical parallelism, where the mind and body work in parallel. Sometimes he suggested, similar to Spinoza, double aspectism, that the mind and body were two sides of the same coin, and sometimes he suggested epiphenomenalism, which suggests that the body influences the mind but not vice versa.

How were some of Titchener’s experiments more extreme?

Most of his research was quite standard in presenting stimuli and asking participants to introspect, though some of his experiments were a little bit more extreme.

In one experiment, participants were asked to swallow a rubber tube and have hot water poured down it, and then cold water, then describe the sensations.

Married students were asked to record feelings and sensations during sexual relations.

Finally, other students were asked to record feelings and sensations during urination and defecation.

Who were Titchener’s Experimentalists?

In 1904, a group of psychologists from Cornell, Yale, Clark, Michigan, and Princeton came together and called themselves the Titchener Experimentalists. They met regularly to discuss research notes.

The group had one strict rule: No women allowed.

This was not because he felt that women were not intelligent enough but rather because he wanted a place to smoke while having science talks and believed that women were too pure to smoke.

Women were welcome to wait outside and listen in on the discussions. This may seem as though Titchener were unfair to women (and in this sense he was), but in fact, he accepted more women in psychology graduate programs and more than 1/3 of his doctoral students were women. He even favoured hiring female faculty, which was not standard practice.

Margaret Floyd Washburn, the first woman to earn her PhD in psychology, was one of Titchener’s grad students.

What is some criticism of Titchener’s Structuralism?

Although there is no question that Titchener added to the field of sensation and perception, there was also a lot of criticism.

The precise task of the trained observers was unclear or unknown. This made his studies difficult to replicate.

There was unreliability within and between subjects, especially since they were forced to use special vocabulary, not being allowed to use certain words. Many would argue that introspection is actually retrospection, making the data artificial.

Finally, Titchener’s techniques could not explore the unconscious mind.

Structuralism will be challenged by many to come and will not survive.

Before WWI, what was Germany considered in regard to Psychology?

An epicenter for research.

Besides Wundt, who were 4 other important Germans who shaped early approaches to psychology?

1. Franz Brentano

2. Carl Stumpf

3. Oswald Külpe

4. Herman Ebbinghaus

Why was science flourishing in German universities?

Partially because universities and labs were well funded, but also because of the German intellectual tradition.

This tradition was evident in how professors were allowed to teach, in how students were able to participate in their studies, and finally, how science was the foundation of all things and not just classroom subject matter.

What are three key concepts that shaped German universities’ views/approaches?

1. Lehrfreiheit

2. Lernfreiheit

3. Wissenschaft

What is Lehrfreiheit?

Freedom to teach: this meant that German professors were free to lecture on any topics they chose, in any way they chose, and to express any views about them, without any interference or direction from university officials or other.

What is Lernfreiheit?

The freedom to learn: emerging German universities in the 18th century also allowed students to choose their course of study, including what they learned, how often they attended classes, and with whom.

What is Wissenschaft?

Science was not determined by its subject matter. It was a way of looking at things.

Who was Franz Brentano?

Brentano was an Austrian philosopher who advocated for a scientific approach to studying the mind, was an Empiricist, and emphasized the role of experience in psychology.

His book, “Psychology from an Empricial Standpoint”, was pubslihed at the same time as Wundt’s “Principles of Physiological Psychology”. They were critical of each other’s work and disagreed with some of the other’s theories.

What did Brentano argue?

That psychologists needed to approach their subject in a scientific manner, but he also believed that the experimental methods of the natural sciences were limited to the study of perception, attention, and working memory, and that higher mental processes would need to be approached in a different manner, which was similar to Wundt’s Völkerpsychologie.

What was Brentano’s school of thought known as and what did it focus on?

Act Psychology.

It focused on mental operations or functions and dealt with the interaction between mental processes and physical events.

Although he agreed that sensation may be a passive process of taking in stimuli from the environment, Brentano insisted that active processes of organization and interpretation were necessary to give meaning to sensory impressions.

How did Brentano outline these processes of organization and interpretation?

Mental phenomena have a unique attribute that distinguishes them from physical phenomena such that they have intentionality.

The object itself, which we are intending towards, is part of the psychological act. It is something mental rather than just material.

When you remember, you have a memory about something. When you experience an emotion, you have a feeling about something.

What are Brentano’s 3 types of intentionality?

1. Imagination: the most basic mental act that involves bringing a thought into consciousness, drawing from either current perception or past memory.

2. Judgement: when you make a rational assessment of the object in your imagination.

3. Emotion: an appraisal of the object as good and desirable or else bad and undesirable.

What did Brentano believe about sensation and perception?

He believed they were a part of outer perception, which involves a conscious awareness of the physical environment around us.

Our perception of the external world is indirect. Only our internal experiences are perceived directly, without mediation of any sense organs. This creates a problem in how researchers were trying to use experimental methods to find out about internal perception.

Why does Brentano use the term “empirical” rather than “experimental”?

To suggest that although knowledge is gathered through our interactions with the real world and can include experimental methods, it isn’t limited to them.

What was Brentano greatly influenced by?

His reading of Aristotle, who emphasized observation and data collection over experimentation and hypothesis testing. To study inner perception, psychologists would have to use empirical but not experimental methods.

Why was Introspection not useful for Brentano?

Because acts are not accessible through introspection and could only be studied through recalling mental processes and/or imaging them.

What was the influence of Act Psychology?

Although consciousness always forms a unity and we can perceive a number of physical phenomena at the same time, we can only perceive one mental phenomenon at a specific point in time.

Brentano’s act psychology, along with his students, would go on to be influential in Gestalt psychology as well as Humanism.

What were Carl Stumpf’s views and how did he contribute to psychology?

Stumpf was very interested in Brentano’s work and opposed to Wundt’s reductionist view.

He contributed to the psychological study of music and is often credited as one of the founders of the field known as ethnomusicology. He published two large volumes that are foundational to the theory of music perception. He is also credited with contributing to Gestalt given that he trained Wolfgang Köhler and Kurt Koffka.

What did Stumpf’s research in music perception involve?

The consonance and dissonance of tones and Tonverschmelzung (tonal fusion), or the fact that some sound combinations produce a single sound image.

Listeners, usually trained musicians, were asked to listen to concurrent tones and decide whether they heard one tone or two.

Results from his lab suggested that the pitch interval that most encourages tonal fusion is the unison, the second most fused interval is the octave, and finally, the third most fused interval is the perfect fifth.

Who was Oswald Külpe?

Külpe was initially a follower of Wundt. He became assistant professor and assistant to Wundt. He believed that psychology was the study of facts that are dependent on the person experiencing them.

Unlike Wundt, he believed higher thought processes could be studied experimentally, and in 1896 started a lab at the University of Wurzburg that would rival Wundt’s.

Why did Külpe conclude that higher though processes could be studied experimentally?

The reason he came to this conclusion about higher thought processes was the fact that Ebbinghaus was studying memory at this time, so why not study thoughts?

How did Külpe’s beliefs regarding psychology develop?

He became a rival of Wundt and disagreed with both Wundt and Titchener’s suggestion that all though was linked to a sensation, image, or feeling.

What did Külpe suggest instead of Wundt and Titchener’s beliefs?

Külpe suggested that some thoughts were imageless, and he set out to prove that higher-level thought could, in fact, be tested experimentally. His students noticed that operations such as searching, doubting, judging, and hesitating held no image yet were important components of the mental act.

In 1901, Karl Marbe, a colleague of Külpe’s, noted that when participants were asked to judge if a weight was heavier or lighter than the standard weight, they reported doubting and searching, suggesting that just the sensory information received from the weights was not enough to come to a conclusion.

What did the psychologists at Würzburg develop an interest in in the early years of the 20th century?

They developed an interest in what people were thinking about while they were introspecting.

The procedure was to have participants perform a complex task and then provide a retrospective report about their cognitive processes during the task. What happened in between the presentation of a stimulus and the formation of mental content?

In the example of a mental set, you could ask the participant to retrospect and discuss what they were thinking about during the task.

How was learning studied before Ebbinghaus?

Learning was studied in a backwards approach by examining associations that were already formed.

Ebbinghaus’s method began with the initial formation of associations in controlled conditions while he recorded the rate at which associations were formed.

How did Ebbinghaus study learning?

Since it is difficult to experiment with words that carried meaning because of existing associations, Ebbinghaus experimented with made-up words that carried no meaning or association. He called these nonsense syllables. These were letters presented in a meaningless seriies.

They consisted of Consonant, Consonant, Consonant (CCC) and Consonant, Vowel, Consonant (CVC).

What is Consonant Consonant Consonant (CCC)?

In using three-letter strings, the syllables could be a string of Consonant Consonant Consonant (CCC) with syllables such as STG, VYH, RLB, ZGP, QNT.

What would not work in this situation would be strings like STD, KLM, DBT, or anything that actually means something.

But CCC was very difficult to remember.

What is Consonant Vowel Consonant (CVC)?

Something a little easier but still nonsense was Consonant Vowel Consonant (CVC).

This was easier to remember because the vowel made it seem like an actual word.

Some examples: LEF, BOK, YAT, GOR, TIH, KUF

Note there is no DOG, CAT, MAT. These would be too easy because they are too common.

What was the research breakdown of Ebbinghaus’ Nonsense Syllables?

Ebbinghaus first created 2,300 nonsense syllables, each consisting of two consonants separated by a vowel.

Several studies would eventually use nonsense syllables to determine the speed of memorization and forgetting.

Ebbinghaus would test these nonsense syllables on a sample of one, himself. He gave himself repeated trials until he learnt the material to two perfect (error-free) recalls of the list, then waited for a length of time, or a retention interval, during which the information had to be held (retained) in memory.

What types of tests did Ebbinghaus devise to assess retention?

Ebbinghaus devised many types of tests to assess retention.

• Recall Tests: participants would try to remember each nonsense syllable presented to them. These tests were either free recall in which there was an attempt to recall the list items without a need to list them in order, or a serial recall, in which participants not only had to attempt to recall the list, but they had to recall them in the order studied.

• Recollection Tests: these involved a large list of CVCs, and participants must try to recognize which of them had been on the list studied. This technique is a more sensitive test of memory than recall; a person may be able to recognize an item that they could not recall.

• Savings Tests: participants were asked to rememorize the list and then compare the number of repetitions required to learn the list the first time to the number required the second time.

What else did Ebbinghaus track?

Ebbinghaus kept track of the speed of memorization. The rate was influenced by the content. He attempted it with a passage from a book to a list of nonsense syllables. It took nine readings of a passage of Lord Byron’s Don Juan to commit it to memory.

Meanwhile, the same length of pseudo-paragraph of CVC nonsense syllables took 80 repetitions.

It is important to note about this test that the passage from Don Juan is not a simple one; it is not a rhyme or limerick, and yet it is still easier than the string of nonsense syllables. Sometimes making sense (or as much as this passage could make sense) is easier for us to retain because there must be some level of importance to it.

What is the Forgetting Curve?

The forgetting curve was Ebbinghaus’ theory that we start losing the memory of learned knowledge over time, most of it almost immediately and within the first hour (56% lost in the first hour), and it continues to deteriorate, though much slower, thereafter.

Ebbinghaus suggested that to counteract this, the material needs to be practiced daily in order to minimize forgetting and increase saving.

A good study tip: study daily to minimize forgetting.

What is the Serial Position Effect?

In studying his nonsense syllables, Ebbinghaus found that he could more easily recall the words at the start of the list and those at the end. This suggested a serial position effect that primacy and recency add to the salience of the words and make them easier to commit to memory, whereas those in the middle just slip away.

A good study tip: when studying chapters 1, 2, and 3, don’t always study them sequentially or you will lose chapter 2. Try mixing it up, one day 1, 2, 3, next day 2, 3, 1, then 3, 1, 2.

What was the influence of German research within the world of Psychology?

The influence was that psychology became more scientific than philosophy. The research was far-reaching, and studies like Ebbinghaus’ memory experiments would be replicated in labs around the world.

There were many different areas explored, such as reaction time, perception, and memory.

They were the first to tackle higher-level thought and had an influence on Freud, Gestalt, and Humanism.