Atlantic Test: Mexico and LA

conquistadores

Spanish conquerors who wanted to gain land for Spain, established the caste system and laid the foundation for social inequality and racial hierarchies.

hegemony

Indirect control through covert means (influencing societal norms, stuff like that), colonial elites used religion and cultural power to maintain power.

transculturation

Blending of cultures resulting from interactions with each other, leads to emergence of new cultures.

mercantilism

The colonies were created to send money back to Spain. Spain tightly regulated trade and extracted raw materials from Latin America (Econ Imperialism and Foreign Control of Resources)

creoles, peninsulares, & mestizos

These were the social classes in Latin America. They represented a big power imbalance and social inequality. Creoles fought multiple times against Peninsulare power. Post-independence Mexico promoted Mestizo identity.

raw materials and institutions for their extraction (mines, haciendas)

Crucial for mercantilist ideology, these were used for exploiting the colonies. Led to long-term social inequality and resentment, also helped justify independence movements.

Napoleon Bonaparte

French Emperor, kicked out Joao and Ferdinand, led to power imbalance and also people did not like who he put in as new ruler. After he got defeated at Waterloo, led to power vacuum. Led to rise of caretaker juntas and independence movements.

Ferdinand VII

Spanish king removed by Napoleon, then restored. After this, national assembly created constitution that creoles didn’t like. However, after he was reinstated his power was questioned. He was forced to accept this constitutional and led to creole resistance.

Miguel Hidalgo

A creole priest who was not very devout who rallied indigenous and mestizo support against Spanish influence, went against Peninsulares and Creoles

José María Morelos

Successor to Hidalgo, Pushed for racial and class equality

Spanish National Assembly and representative government (popular sovereignty)

Same as central junta, emergence of more liberal ideas in Spain (promoting popular sovereignty), key idea of independence in LA

Spanish Liberal constitution of 1820

Creoles didn’t like it as it favored the more common people and popular sovereignty, resisted against it

Plan de Iguala

Proposed by Iturbide. Declared independence preserved Catholicism , and protected Creole privileges

The Caste War of the Yucatán

Maya uprising against white and mestizo elites and mulattoes, got put down

Mexican frontier lands (e.g. Texas and California)

They were contested area between Mexico and US, Mexicans felt mad

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

Ended Mexican-American War, Mexico lost half their land to US

Bourbon Reforms

Implemented after Seven Years War, increased Spanish Control over colonies and brought more Peninsulares to colonies, increasing tensions

core/fringe

Core areas are like Spain (more economical) and fringe areas like Colonies (resources get extracted by the Core areas)

King João

Was Portuguese King, got kicked out by Napoleon and moved to Brazil, made it the center of Portuguese trade and activity, reason why there was no rebellion in Brazil

Popular sovereignty

Power with the people, people should decide what their laws are

Legitimacy (in governance)

Public perception of rulers, Ex. Maximilian: No one thought he was rightful leader so no one followed him

The Central Junta & “caretaker” juntas

The central junta was in Spain and the “caretaker” juntas were in Mexico, local governing bodies that helped govern the colonies during Napoleonic situation

"The Grito”

Created by Hidalgo, a call for independence

Americanos

Created by revolutionaries to create a stronger sense of national identity to unify Latin America.

Tupac Amaru II

Led indigenous revolt in Peru against Spanish oppression, was brutally suppressed

Llaneros

Cowboys/herders that fought for independence and against it, in end they helped Bolivar who was pro-Spanish.

Battle of Waterloo

Battle when Napoleon was defeated, created the power vacuum and led to a greater push for Independence.independence

Simón Bolívar

The key independence leader in LA, advocated for unity and helped many countries gain independence

Battle of Ayacucho

Bolivar led battle against the Spanish that got independence from Peru, after this Spanish left LA

Postcolonial

LA after Spanish left, encompasses all of the struggles that LA faced post-independence

La Reforma

Movement led by Benito Juarez to reduce church and military power, also increased education and civil rights, broke up large estates as well.

Benito Juarez

Led La Reforma, won civil war

Ejidos (definition and changes during Juarez administration)

Communal land holdings were promoted during the Revolution. Juarez reduced them in favor of individual plots, and then Cardenas revived them.

European occupation of Veracruz & the Mexican Emperor Maximilian*

France invaded Mexico in the 1860’s and installed Maximilian as the ruler, but he had no authority and was eventually executed by Benito Juarez.

foreign investors, trade, loans & debt

Relates to how Mexico was very reliant on foreign powers for economy, also why French came in and instated Maximilian.

Porfirio Diaz and the porfiriato

During his rule, Diaz emphasized modernization through foreign investment, while he had economic growth he also exploited peasants and indigenous communities so they didn’t like him and led to resentment

Pan, o palo

Diaz’s slogan that was basically: Either you follow me and and rewarded or go against me and get punished

Francisco Madero

Led opposition against Diaz, advocated for democracy (legitimate governance), his assassination led to deeper conflict

Emiliano Zapata and the Zapatistas

Zapata was the rebel leader after land reform. They fought against Diaz for better rights, and are still somewhat active today

Pancho Villa and the Villistas

Also went against Diaz, fought for labor rights and local control.

Venustiano Carranza and the Constitutionalists

Went against Villa and Zapata, was against popular sovereignty and created Cons of 1917, which restricted foreign influence on Mexican land.

Constitution of 1917 and its values

Created by Carranza, defended Mexico from foreign control, emphazised Mexican pride, more equality, reduced Church power

land reform (esp. Differences between Diaz and Cárdenas)

Diaz was about having land be used by foreign influence to make more money, Cardenas was about giving land to the people

Plutarco Calles and the PRN

Calles helped institutionalize rule after revolution, created political stability but limited dissent, PRN were eventually renamed to PRI

The PRI

Used nationalism and revolutionary symbolism to maintain power

cultural revolution and “Mexicanization”

Post-rev emphasis on indigenous roots and Mexican pride, sought to unify nation

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

Economic model adopted post-Revolution, focusing on reducing dependency on foreign goods by building local industries.

Nationalize

Increase Mexican identity (be proud of it) and strengthen bond, also make economy more focused on Mexico

IMF and its reform agenda

In the late 20th century, Mexico adopted neoliberal reforms promoted by the IMF, including austerity, trade liberalization, and reduced state intervention.

privatization

Transition from state/local owned companies to privately owned ones, mostly foreign, common under IMF guidance

“Super Barrio,” the PAN, & the PRD

Super Barrio—urban activist hero of the 1980s; PAN—conservative party; PRD—leftist opposition party.

USMCA née NAFTA

Trade agreement between the U.S., Mexico, and Canada (formerly NAFTA). Opened Mexican markets to U.S. goods.

maquiladoras

Factories on the U.S.-Mexico border that assemble imported materials for export, more evidence of foreign reliance to economy

Starbucks, McDonald’s, & Staples

Examples of private American companies using Mexico to export back to US

The Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN), including “The Other Campaign”

Advocated for democracy and more rights for people, Against foreign influence

drug trafficking & narcocorridos

Drug violence and culture that emerged due to weak governance and economic inequality.

commercial farms / subsistence farms

Post-NAFTA, commercial agriculture/business displaced traditional subsistence farming.