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Adams Onis Treaty
By handing over Florida to the U.S., the treaty marked a significant territorial expansion, showing the nation’s growing power and influence. Additionally, it established clear boundaries between Spanish territories and the United States, reducing conflicts and fostering a more stable and unified nation. The successful negotiation of the treaty without resorting to war boosted national pride and demonstrated the country's ability to achieve its goals through diplomacy. Furthermore, gaining control of Florida opened new opportunities for economic growth and strengthened the nation's economy.
American System
An economic plan aimed at promoting national growth and unity in the early 19th century. It emphasized three key components: the establishment of a protective tariff to support American industries, the creation of a national bank to foster financial stability and currency regulation, and the development of internal improvements such as roads and canals to facilitate transportation and commerce. Clay's vision sought to strengthen the economy and enhance the interconnectedness of the nation, reflecting a belief in the importance of a strong central government to support infrastructure and economic development.
Election of 1824
Marked by intense political rivalry and the emergence of multiple candidates from the Democratic-Republican Party, including John Quincy Adams, Andrew Jackson, Henry Clay, and William Crawford. Andrew Jackson won the popular vote and had the most electoral votes but did not secure a majority, leading to the decision being made in the House of Representatives. In a controversial outcome, John Quincy Adams was elected president, which sparked allegations of a "corrupt bargain" when he appointed Henry Clay as his Secretary of State, ultimately contributing to the fracture of the Democratic-Republican Party and the formation of new political factions.
Pickney’s Treaty
Treaty between the U.S. and Spain which gave the U.S. the right to transport goods on the Mississippi River and to store goods in the Spanish port of New Orleans, defined US and Spanish borders; expansion across boundaries, foreshadows how US wants to keep spreading westward
Treaty of Ghent
Signed on December 24, 1814, officially ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain. The treaty restored the status quo ante bellum, meaning that territorial boundaries and conditions returned to what they were before the war, with no significant territorial gains for either side. While it did not address the issues that initially caused the war, such as impressment and trade restrictions, the treaty fostered a sense of national unity and laid the groundwork for improved relations between the two countries in the years to come.
Hartford Convention
A gathering of New England Federalists from December 1814 through January 1815 to channel opposition to Thomas Jefferson and the War of 1812. Some participants may have regarded the meeting as preparatory to a secession movement by the New England colonies.
War Hawks
Young congressional leaders who in 1811 and 1812 called for war against Great Britain as the only way to defend the national honor. Afterward, war hawk came into common usage as a term used to describe someone favoring political decisions to go to war.
John Marshall Supreme Court Cases
Collectively reinforced the power of the federal government and the principles of federalism in the early United States.
McCulloch v. Maryland: the Court upheld the constitutionality of the Second Bank of the United States and asserted federal supremacy by ruling that states could not tax federal institutions.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward: protected the rights of private corporations by ruling that states could not alter a private charter, thus safeguarding economic liberties and contractual agreements.
Gibbons v. Ogden: expanded federal authority by affirming that Congress had the exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce, effectively dismantling state monopolies and promoting a unified national market. Together, these decisions laid the groundwork for a stronger federal government and a more cohesive national identity.
Causes of the War of 1812
Primarily caused by British interference with American shipping, including the impressment of American sailors into the British Navy and trade restrictions imposed by Britain during its conflict with France. Additionally, there were increasing tensions due to British support for Native American resistance against American expansion into the Northwest Territory, which fueled further animosity. These grievances, combined with a growing sense of nationalism and the desire to assert U.S. sovereignty, ultimately led to the declaration of war against Britain.
Monroe Doctrine
A foreign policy edict propounded by President James Monroe in 1823, declaring that the American continents were no longer open to European colonization or exploitation and that the United States would not interfere in the internal affairs of European nations.
Non-Importation, Non-Intercourse, Embargo Acts
Non-Importation Act of 1806: aimed to restrict imports from Britain as a response to British trade restrictions and impressment of American sailors, signaling early attempts at economic pressure to protect American interests.
Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: lifted the embargo on trade with all nations except Britain and France, reflecting a desire to maintain commerce while still protesting British and French interference.
Embargo Act of 1807: imposed a complete halt on American exports to all foreign countries, intending to assert U.S. neutrality and pressure Britain and France to respect American sovereignty; however, it backfired economically, leading to widespread discontent and contributing to the War of 1812.
Tariff of 1816
A 25% tax on all wool and cotton goods imported into the United States from foreign nations. This provided the U.S. government with a budget surplus and helped the country continue the process of industrialization. The tariff was approved on April 27, 1816, as a temporary measure, authorized for only three years (until June 1820).
Macon’s Bill #2
Was intended to motivate Great Britain and France to stop seizing American vessels during the Napoleonic Wars. The law lifted all embargoes with Britain and France (for three months). It stated, however, that if either Britain or France agreed to respect America's neutral rights, the United States would immediately stop trade with the other nation.
Alien and Sedition Acts
Four laws passed by the United States Congress in 1798 during the Presidency of John Adams and a time of anti-French sentiments resulting from the XYZ affair:
The Naturalization Act extended the residency period from 5 to 14 years for aliens seeking citizenship; was aimed at Irish and French immigrants who were often active in Republican politics.
The Alien Act allowed the expulsion of aliens deemed dangerous during peacetime.
The Alien Enemies Act allowed the expulsion or imprisonment of aliens deemed dangerous during wartime.
The Sedition Act provided for fines or imprisonment for individuals who criticized the government, Congress, or president in speech or print.
Battle of New Orleans
Occurred on January 8, 1815, between the British (who hoped to seize New Orleans in an effort to expand into territory acquired by the United States through the Louisiana Purchase of 1803), and the Americans who were led by Andrew Jackson. Jackson and his troops were outnumbered 2:1 but were able to overcome the odds and decisively win the battle. Jackson emerged as a hero, which helped start his political career. The Americans suffered roughly 250 casualties, while the British suffered roughly 2,000. Became a symbol of American democracy triumphing over the old European ideas of aristocracy and entitlement and was the last major armed engagement between the United States and Britain.
Era of Good Feelings – reasons why, reasons why not
A period from 1817 to 1823 in which the disappearance of the Federalists enabled the Democrats to govern in a spirit of seemingly nonpartisan harmony.
Reasons Why: Political Unity: A temporary lack of partisan conflict, which contributed to a sense of political harmony, Economic Growth: Included the development of infrastructure like roads and canals, which facilitated trade and communication, National Pride: The successful conclusion of the War of 1812 fostered a sense of American nationalism and pride, leading to increased confidence in the nation's future.
Reasons Why Not: Regional Tensions: Particularly over issues like slavery, tariffs, and economic interests, began to create tensions that would later escalate, Economic Struggles: Including the Panic of 1819, which led to widespread bank failures and unemployment, Political Discontent: Dissenting voices and political opposition were often undervalued, leading to concerns about the lack of a true democratic process and representation.
Jefferson Administration (1801–1809)
Jefferson wanted to avoid the ceremonial aspects of the presidency.. "nobody shall be above you, nor you above anyone,” he did not favor people due to their standings. Focused on reducing the size and influence of the federal government, promoting an agrarian vision for the United States, and advocating for states' rights. Key accomplishments included the Louisiana Purchase in 1803, which doubled the nation’s size, and efforts to lower national debt by reducing military expenditures. Jefferson also passed the Embargo Act of 1807, aimed at avoiding war by halting trade with Europe, though it had significant economic consequences.
Jefferson Inauguration
He dressed in normal clothes, the ceremony took place inside the Capitol, President Adams did not Attend. His display of Republican simplicity demonstrated his attempt to connect with the common man and set the tone for his presidency where he would work to overturn Federalist policies.
Missouri Compromise
A legislative deal brokered in 1820 that preserved the balance of slave and free states in the Union by admitting Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state; it also banned slavery from that part of the Louisiana Territory north of 36o30’
Birth of Party System
Was largely driven by ideological differences between key political figures in the early republic. Disagreements over the size and power of the federal government, economic policies, and foreign alliances led to the formation of factions, with Alexander Hamilton’s Federalists advocating for a strong central government and Thomas Jefferson’s Democratic-Republicans favoring states' rights and limited federal power. These divisions solidified into formal political parties, marking the beginning of the U.S. party system.
Louisiana Purchase
It doubled the nation's size and secured control of vital trade routes along the Mississippi River and New Orleans, which not only boosted the country’s economic potential by providing vast new lands for agriculture and settlement but also symbolized the nation's growing independence from European powers. By negotiating the purchase from France in 1803, the U.S. demonstrated its ability to assert its interests on the global stage. The expansion fueled a sense of manifest destiny, strengthening national identity and reinforcing the belief that America was destined for growth and greatness as a unified, independent nation.
Corrupt Bargain
An alleged agreement made during the 1824 presidential election in which John Quincy Adams was accused of striking a deal with Henry Clay to secure the presidency in exchange for appointing Clay as his Secretary of State. This event is often seen as a pivotal moment in American politics, as it raised concerns about the integrity of electoral processes and the influence of political elites, impacting the expanding democracy and shaping the role of federal power under Jackson's presidency.
Marbury v. Madison
An 1803 Supreme Court ruling that declared the Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional and established the precedent for judicial review of federal laws.
Impressment
The policy whereby Britain forced people to serve in its navy. The impressment of sailors—even American citizens—on neutral vessels during the Napoleonic Wars outraged Americans and was a major cause of the War of 1812.
Jeffersonian democracy
A political theory that enshrined small independent farmers, distrusted bankers and merchants, deplored big government, and insisted that political power should rest with the people (excepting slaves, women, and some others).
Lewis and Clark Expedition
An exploration of the Louisiana Territory and the region stretching to the Pacific, commissioned by President Jefferson. Commanded by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, the enterprise (1804–1806) brought back a wealth of information about the region.
Napoleonic Wars
Were a series of conflicts involving Napoleon Bonaparte's French Empire and various European coalitions from 1803 to 1815, driven by Napoleon's ambitions to expand French influence and control across the continent. These wars reshaped the political landscape of Europe, leading to significant territorial changes and the eventual rise of nationalist movements.
America's attempts to maintain neutrality during the wars ultimately contributed to rising tensions with Britain, culminating in the War of 1812, as the U.S. sought to assert its sovereignty and protect its economic interests.
Nullification
A theory that a state has the right to invalidate federal legislation the state regards as unconstitutional. Later, a doctrine forcefully articulated by John C. Calhoun in 1828, asserting that a state could invalidate, within its own boundaries, federal legislation the state regarded as unconstitutional.
Panic of 1819
The first major financial crisis in the United States, characterized by a severe economic downturn that led to widespread bank failures, unemployment, and foreclosures. Triggered by a combination of factors, including speculative land investments, the decline of agricultural prices, and tight monetary policies implemented by the Second Bank of the United States, the panic exposed vulnerabilities in the young nation's economy and sowed the seeds for future economic reforms.
Tariff of Abominations
An exceptionally high tariff passed in 1828 that provoked Vice President John C. Calhoun to write The “South Carolina Exposition and Protest—a defense of the doctrine of nullification. Intended to protect burgeoning domestic industries by inflating the cost of imported goods by as much as 50 percent, making Americans less likely to buy foreign products and giving an advantage to their domestic counterparts.
American Colonization Society
An organization founded in 1816 that proposed to solve the “Negro problem” by transporting freed slaves from the United States to Africa. Although the society purchased land in Africa (Liberia), few African Americans chose to resettle there.
Dartmouth College v. Woodward
The 1819 Supreme Court case that held that a state charter—in this case, to Dartmouth College—was a contract and that contracts could not be canceled or altered without the consent of both parties, a ruling that strengthened corporations and encouraged investment.
Gibbons v. Ogden
Supreme Court ruling (1824) that held that no state could pass laws affecting interstate trade, thereby ensuring the federal government’s supremacy in interstate commerce.
McCulloch v. Maryland
An 1819 Supreme Court ruling that state governments could not tax a federal agency—in this case the second Bank of the United States—for “the power to tax involves the power to destroy.” The decision affirmed the doctrine of the implied powers of the federal government.
Bank War
The political dispute over whether to renew the charter of the Second Bank of the United States. In 1832, Congress voted to recharter the bank, but President Andrew Jackson vetoed the measure so the charter expired in 1836. He argued that the bank was unconstitutional, a dangerous monopoly, and vulnerable to control by foreign investors.
Jacksonian democracy
A political doctrine chiefly associated with Andrew Jackson that proclaimed the equality of all adult white males—the “common man”—and disapproved of anything that smacked of special privilege, such as chartered banks.
Second American Party System
A term for the political contention between the Democratic Party, as rejuvenated by Andrew Jackson in 1828, and the Whigs, who emerged in response to Jackson.
Spoils System
A term, usually derisive, of the practice of newly elected officeholders appointing loyal members of their own party to public office. Seen when Andrew Jackson was in office.
Timeline 1801-1809
1801 Judiciary Act of 1801 allows Adams to appoint many Federalist judges.
1801 Jefferson is elected president.
1801–1805 U.S. wages war against Barbary pirates in North Africa.
1803 Supreme Court declares part of Judiciary Act of 1789 unconstitutional (Marbury v. Madison).
1803 Jefferson negotiates Louisiana Purchase with France.
1804 Aaron Burr kills Alexander Hamilton in duel.
1804–1806 Lewis and Clark explore the West.
1806 Aaron Burr schemes to take land in West during Burr Conspiracy.
1807 Embargo Act prohibits all exports.
1809 Non-Intercourse Act forbids trade with Great Britain and France.
Timeline 1810-1824
1810 Macon’s Bill No. 2 removes all restrictions on commerce with Britain and France.
1811 Battle of Tippecanoe shatters Indian confederation.
1812 Congress declares war on Great Britain. USS Constitution and United States win naval victories.
1814 British burn Washington, D.C.Francis Scott Key writes “The Star-Spangled Banner” during bombardment of Fort McHenry.
1815 General Andrew Jackson defeats British at Battle of New Orleans
1820–1821  Missouri Compromise closes Missouri Territory to slavery, but opens ArkansasTerritory to slavery.
1823 Monroe Doctrine says United States will consider future European colonization in Western Hemisphere a threat to American peace and safety
1824–1825 House of Representatives decides election of 1824in favor of John Quincy Adams.
Timeline of Jacksonian Democracy and Internal Improvements
1790 Samuel Slater sets up first American factory.
1793 Eli Whitney is widely—but wrongly—credited for inventing the cotton gin.
1807 Robert Fulton constructs the North River Steam Boat (the Clermont).
1808 Constitutional prohibition of importation of slaves goes into effect.
1813 Boston Manufacturing Company opens in Waltham, Massachusetts.
1817 American Colonization Society is founded in order to establish Republic of Liberia for freed slaves.
1819 Chief Justice John Marshall asserts “sanctity” of contracts in Dartmouth College v. Woodward.
1824 Chief Justice Marshall defends supremacy of federal government over states in Gibbons v. Ogden (steamboat case).
1825 Erie Canal is completed.
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