Human Geo Unit 5 (ch. 12, 13, 14)

agriculture

the purposeful cultivation of plants or raising of animals to produce goods for survival

topography

an area’s land features

climate regions

areas that have similar climate patterns generally based on their latitude and their location on coasts or continental interiors. characterized by a combination of temperature, precipitation, wind patterns, and topography. main five types (tropical, dry, temperate, continental, polar)

mediterranean agriculture

agriculture practiced in an area with a mediterranean climate. consists of growing hardy trees (olive, fruit, and nut trees) and raising sheep and goats (which forage in sparse, scrubby summer growth and maneuver around the region’s steep landscape)

subsistence agriculture

agriculture designed primarily to provide food for direct consumption by the farmer and the farmer's family. excess may be sold off or bartered for money. less industrialized form of farming, primarily hand labor.

commercial agriculture

a form of agriculture undertaken in order to generate products for sale off of the farm in order to make a profit. range of goods depends on geographic and economic factors.

bid-rent theory

a theory to explain how land value determines how a farmer may use the land, either intensively or extensively. (how much they buy because of high or low cost, and how productively the land is used). can also affected by ease of good transport (ex. dairy or grain)

central business district (CBD)

an area where a large amount of businesses are located (usually in a highly accessible location)

intensive agriculture

when farmers expend a great deal of effort to produce as much yield as possible from an area of land. rely on high “inputs” of energy such as chemical fertilizer, pesticides, growth regulators, human or animal labor, natural fertilizer, or soil care.

monocropping

the cultivation of one or two crops that are rotated seasonally

monoculture

the agricultural system of planting one crop or raising one type of animal annually

crop rotation

the varying of crops from year to year to allow for the restoration of valuable nutrients and the continuing productivity of the soil.

plantation agriculture

large scale commercial farming of one particular crop grown for markets often distant from the plantation (common in periphery/semi-periphery countries)

market gardening

farming that produces fruits, vegetables, and flowers and typically serves a specific market/urban area where farmers can conveniently sell to local stores, restaurants, farmers’ markets, and road stands.

mixed crop and livestock systems

in which both crops and livestock are raised for profit. two types of mixed farming: on-farm and between-farm. in on-farm mixed farming, crops and livestock are raised on the same farm. in between-farm mixing, two farmers share resources, with one growing crops and the other raising livestock.

clustered/nucleated settlement

residents live in close proximity. houses and farm buildings near one another, with farmland surrounding the settlement. promotes social unity, but can also lead to social friction or longer distance from fields.

dispersed settlement

houses and buildings isolated, distributed over a large area. often in areas with difficult terrain. promotes independence but lacks social interaction or shared institutions.

linear settlement

houses and buildings extend in a long line that usually follows a land feature (riverfront, coast, hill, transportation route)

extensive agriculture

system of crop cultivation using small amounts of labor and capital in relation to area of land being farmed.

shifting cultivation

the practice of growing crops or grazing animals on a piece of land for a year or two, then abandoning the land when the nutrients have been depleted from the soil and moving to a new piece of land where the process is repeated. the size of land is usually not large, but requires a relatively large area in which to operate over time. (is practiced in marginal areas of the tropics, like rainforests in south america, central and west africa, and southeast asia)

marginal environment

an environment that has poor soil or other undesirable characteristics. often located at the edge of deserts or other desolate areas and experiences extreme weather or climate conditions. usually far from roads and other means of transportation.

slash and burn

a type of shifting cultivation. when land is cleared by cutting down trees and brush, then leaving them to dry, and burning the “slash”, turning it into a nutrient-rich ash fertilizer. the area is cultivated until the soil becomes infertile, and the process is repeated. has long been practiced, but is unsustainable as more farmers are adopting the practice. causes habitat loss for local creatures, increases likeliness for erosion, and releases pollution and carbon dioxide into the air, contributing to global climate change.

overgrazing

destruction of feed plants that results from livestock overpopulation or overfeeding

nomadic herding/pastoral nomadism

when farmers move their animals seasonally to allow the best grazing. requires far-reaching areas of land to prevent overgrazing

transhumance

the movement of herds between pastures at cooler, higher elevations during the summer months and lower elevations during the winter. (ex. Kohistani in eastern Afghanistan)

ranching

takes place in semi arid grassland areas around the world in which crop production is difficult or impossible

domestication

the deliberate effort to grow plants and raise animals, making plants and animals adapt to human demands, and using selective breeding to develop desirable characteristics

foragers

small nomadic groups who had primarily plant-based diets and ate small animals or fish for protein. (plants included fruits and vegetables, seeds and nuts, tubers, and other plants.) these people fished in rivers and lakes, gathered shellfish, and used traps, stones, or projectile weapons to hunt small game. sometimes formed bands to hunt larger animals.

agricultural hearth

an area where different groups began to domesticate plants and animals

fertile crescent

a hearth in Southwest Asia that forms an arc from the eastern Mediterranean coast up into what is now western Turkey and then south and east along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to western parts of modern Iran. the area where domestication first took place

columbian exchange

the exchange of goods and ideas between the americas, europe, and africa. began after christopher columbus landed in the americas in 1942

first agricultural revolution

the shift from foraging for food to farming about 11,000 years ago, marking the beginning of agriculture. sometimes called the neolithic revolution. occurred both independently and simultaneously, but at different rates among regions.

sedentary

settling in one place and making that place a permanent home. a lifestyle with more durable housing and heavier items that do not have to be light enough to relocate to another area.

second agricultural revolution

a change in farming practices marked by new tools and techniques that diffused from Britain and the Low Countries starting in the early 18th century. caused improvements in crop yields and changed farm organization.

enclosure system

a system in which communal lands were replaced by farms owned by individuals and use of the land was restricted to the owner or tenant who rented the land from the owner. gave farmers more control over land, creating more effective farming practices. also pushed peasants off land, creating a labor surplus that contributed to the industrial revolution.

third agricultural revolution

a shift to further mechanization in agriculture through the development of new technology and advances that began in the early 20th century and continues to present day

genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

a plant or animal with specific characteristics obtained through the manipulation of its genetic makeup. enhances ability of new strains to resist disease or drought or to have nutritional impact or consumer appeal.

green revolution

a movement beginning in the 1950s-60s in which scientists used knowledge of genetics to develop new high-yield strains of grain crops and help introduce the crop strains to semi-periphery/periphery areas with high populations and low yields. introduced by Norman Borlaug

infrastructure

the many systems and facilities that a country needs in order to function properly. available to most commercial farming in core and semi-periphery countries that have access to the global market.

dual agricultural economy

refers to two agricultural sectors in the same country or region that have different levels of technology and different patterns of demand. (substinence farms exist alongside commercial operations that export their crop, often to core countries) (ex. South Africa, Zimbabwe)

agribusiness

the large-scale system that includes the production, processing, and distribution of agricultural products and equipment. includes commercial farmers, food manufacturers, distributors, and marketers. controlled and dominated by larger companies.

hybrid

the product created by breeding different varieties of species to enhance the most favorable characteristics. can increase disease resistance, or allow some plants to grow in extreme temperatures or wet/dry conditions.

cooperative

a system in which farmers pool their resources to produce, market, and sell their crops.

vertical integration

when a company controls more than one stage of the production process of goods (through the combining of a company’s ownership)

commodity chain

a complex network that connects places of production with distribution to consumers. (start with inputs)

futures market

an obligation for a buyer to purchase, a seller to sell, or a crop set at a specific price in a future time (ex. citrus industry). helps entire chain work together, while each part remains independent.

farm subsidies

a form of aid and insurance given by the federal government to certain farmers and agribusinesses. originally started during Great Depression in 1930s. debated on whether actually helpful or not, because family farms who need help are not receiving as much help.

tariffs

a tax or duty to be paid on a particular import or export. can affect trade between countries and bring about “trade wars” (ex. China and U.S.). used to raise government revenue, but also to protect domestic industries against foreign competition.

Von Thunen model

suggests that perishability of the product and transport costs to the market each factor into the location of agricultural land use and activity. (in to out: market, farming & dairying, forests, grain & cereal crops, livestock) based on ideal 1826 environment.

global supply chains

a system of organizations, people, technology, activities, information, and resources involved in moving a product or service from supplier to customer on a global scale.

cash crop

a crop that is produced for its commercial value. dependency on a single export can have negative consequences. if supply of cash crop is limited, specialized countries can have increased profit (ex. vanilla in Madagascar)

fair trade movement

a global campaign to fix unfair wage practices and protect the ability of farmers to earn a living. meant to improve lives of farmers in periphery/semi-periphery through improved working conditions, direct income, and insurance)

agricultural landscapes

landscapes resulting from the interactions between farming activities and a location’s natural environment.

agroecosystem

an ecosystem modified for agricultural use

deforestation

the loss of forest lands, which can lead to soil erosion. is sustainable if properly done, and on a small scale. (ex. Hin Lad Nai in Thailand for 400+ years)

terracing

the process of carving parts of a hill or mountainside into small, level growing plots. used in mountainous areas of various climates. become flooded during rainfall, but water flows through without washing away soil. preserves soil nutrients (though labor intensive). often important to cultural heritage (ex. Ifugao rice terraces in Philippines.)

reservoirs

artificial lakes created by the building of dams across streams or rivers (ex. Colorado river)

aquifers

layers of underground sand, gravel, and rocks that contain and can release useable amounts of water. (must be replenished to be sustainable)

wetlands

areas of land that are covered by or saturated with water. draining once seen as acceptable, but created habitat loss for many fish, waterfowl, and mammals. can reduce flood damage, improve water quality, and traps carbon dioxide.

desertification

a form of land degradation that occurs when soil deteriorates to a desert-like condition. can be the result of poor pastoral-nomadism in semiarid/arid lands.

biodiversity

the variety of organisms living in a location. hards can favor certain plants, reducing plant cover, and soil erosion can result when mountain slopes are compacted by livestock hooves.

salinization

the process by which water-soluble salts build up in the soil. occurs in arid/semiarid regions when water evaporates from the ground more rapidly than it is replenished by rain or irrigation. its accumulation in the root zone of a crop can lead to reduced yields.

debt-for-nature

an agreement between a bank and a peripheral country in which the bank forgives a portion of the country’s debt in exchange for local investment in conservation means.

biotechnology

the science of altering living organisms, often through genetic manipulation, to create new products for specific purposes, such as crops that resist certain pests. (ex. genetic engineering)

agricultural biodiversity

the variety and variability of plants, animals, and microorganisms that are used directly of indirectly for food and agriculture. vital to environmentally sustainable agriculture.

precision agriculture

a farming management concept that uses technology to apply inputs with pinpoint accuracy to specific parts of fields to maximize yields, reduce waste, and preserve the environment.

commodity

a raw material or primary agricultural product that can easily be sold across a large market (ex. corn, wheat, cotton) produced at similar quality, must meet minimum trade standards.

food security

reliable access to safe nutritious food that can support a healthy and active lifestyle

food insecurity

the disruption of a household’s food intake or eating patterns because of poor access to food. commonly caused by lack of money or other resources

suburbanization

the shifting of population from cities to surrounding suburbs. motivated by cheaper housing, more space, and lower crime rates

food deserts

areas where residents lack access to healthy, nutritious foods because stores selling the foods are too far away. occur in major urban areas that have more food high in cholesterol, sugar, and fat.

economy of scale

the reduced cost of producing food items as the quantity of production increases. farming on a large scale is more efficient than on a small scale.

food sovereignty

the rights of people to healthy and culturally appropriate food produced through ecologically sound and sustainable methods, and their right to define their own food and agricultural systems.

empowerment

(in the context of farming) the ability to make decisions about factors such as land, livestock, seeds, fertilizer, and machinery, as well as control over finances and one’s own time.

metes and bounds

this system uses physical features of local geography along with directions and distances to define and describe boundaries of land parcels.

long-lot system

distinct regional approach to land surveying found in the Canadian Maritimes, parts of Quebec, Louisiana, and Texas whereby land is divided into narrow parcels stretching back from rivers, roads, or canals

township and range

a rectangular land division scheme designed by Thomas Jefferson to disperse settlers evenly across farmlands of the U.S. interior.

double cropping

harvesting twice a year from the same field

truck farming

commercial gardening and fruit farming. produce varies according to season.

organic farming/agriculture

approach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs

concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs)

an animal feeding operation (AFO) that concentrates large numbers of animals in relatively small and confined places, and that substitutes structures and equipment for land and labor.

milkshed

an area surrounding the milk source (dairy farm) where milk is supplied without spoiling. transportation methods will cause milksheds to vary in size

sustainable agriculture

farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil-restoring crops with cash crops and reducing inputs of fertilizer and pesticides.

aquaculture

the name given to all farming and rearing of fish and marine plants that does not fall under the category of fishing

value-added crops

goods have some other product in them or item attached to them to make them unique and able to sell at higher price

Whittlesey’s Agricultural Regions Map

the concept of eleven distinct agricultural regions formed in the 1930s