Ap psych unit 2

heredity

heredity

The passing on of different physical and mental traits from one generation to another

theory of evolution

statedthat evolution happens by natural selection.Traits that would help with a species survivalwould be passed on while undesirable traitswould die off

heritability

A mathematical measure to estimate how much variation there is in a population related to genes. Itshows how much of a trait is genetics and how much is from the environment

nature

genetics, biology, heredity that shapes us as individuals.

nuture

our environment, how we are raised and what we surround ourselves with

psychological perspectives learn towards the nature side

Biological, Cognitive, Evolutionary

psychological perspectives learntowards the nurture side of the debate

Psychodynamic, Behaviorism, Sociocultura

Epigenetics

the studyof how the environment and a person’sbehavior affect a person’s genes and howthey work.

Brain plasticity

changes thathappen with the structure of the brain on acellular level, in response to what ishappening in the environment

nervous system

The nervous system uses neuronsto send anddeliver messages to localized areas of the body, it uses fast,short-lived messages.

endorine system

uses glands to createhormones, these messages are slower moving and target largerbroad areas of the body

homeostasis

This is the body’s ability to maintain internal stability.

hypothalamus

Directs different autonomic functions of the body and directs thepituitary gland

Pituitary Gland

Located at the base of your brain. It connects the nervous system and endocrine system. Also helps regulate all other glands in the body, in response to the hypothalamus

-Growth hormones, oxytocin, and vasopressin

pineal gland

Above the brainstem in the middle of the brain.Helps regulate sleep cycles

-melatonin

Thyroid & Parathyroid gland

Located in the throat. Regulates the metabolism, growth, nervous system, Helps control calcium and phosphate levels in blood

-Thyroid hormones, parathyroid hormones, and calcitonin

adrenal glands

Above your kidneys. Helps regulate salt, blood pressure, and oxygen intake

—Norepinephrine, epinephrine, glucocorticoids, and Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)

pancreas

By the stomach. Regulates sugar levels

-insulin and glucagon

gonds

Ovaries or testes. Reproduction

-Testosterone, estrogen ,progesterone

central nervous system

made up of the brain and spinal cord, it sends out orders to the body.

• Peripheral nervous system

consists of the different nerves that branch off from the brain and spine

two major subdivisions: your somatic nervous system and your autonomic nervous system.

• Your peripheral nervous system lies outside the midline portion of your nervous system carrying sensory information to and motor information away from your central nervous system via spinal and cranial nerves.

• Somatic nervous system

• has motor neurons that stimulate skeletal (voluntary) muscle.

• Autonomic nervous system:

• has motor neurons that stimulate smooth (involuntary) and heart muscle.

different parts of the peripheral nervous system. (Sensory

madeof afferent neurons that pick up sensory information from outside stimuli and send impulses to the brain aboutthat information. T

different parts of the peripheral nervous system. (motor

The motor division uses efferent neurons to send impulses from the brain to the muscles and glands of the body to tell them to move

afferent neurons

sending impulses to the brain from the body and outside stimuli,

efferent neurons

send impulses from the brain to the rest of the body to control movement and more

divisions of the autonomic nervous system

Sympathetic division & parasympathetic division

Sympathetic division

• results in responses that help your body deal with stressful events including dilation of your pupils, release of glucose from your liver, dilation of bronchi, inhibition of digestive functions, acceleration of heart rate, secretion of adrenaline from your adrenal glands, acceleration of breathing rate, and inhibition of secretion of your tear glands.

• Parasympathetic stimulation

• calms your body following sympathetic stimulation by restoring digestive processes (salivation, peristalsis, enzyme secretion), returning pupils to normal pupil size, stimulating tear glands, and restoring normal bladder contractions.

glial cell

A cell that provides support to the nervous system, providing neurons with nutrients. They are the most abundant cell in the nervous system

Dendrites

Extensions of the cell body that receive chemical information from adjacent neurons through receptor sites

Nucleus

Contains genetic material including information for cell development andother structures that allow the neuron to function

Soma

This is the cell body that contains the nucleus and most organelles

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed, which helpspromote the continuing action potentia

axon

The longest part of a neuron, it carries information away from the soma toother cells

Myelin Sheath

Insulating layer that increases how fast the action potential travels downthe axon and protects the axon from damages

Axon Terminal or Terminal Button

This is at the end of the axon where neurotransmitters are released into the synapse

Schwann CellsSchwann Cells

Helps produce the myelin sheath

action potential

This is when a neuronfires an electrical impulse down the axon

-An outside stimulus must cause a neuron to crossaspecific threshold (typically 55 -55mV), this causes the neuron to depolarize as positive ions enter the neuronwhich causes an electrical signal to be sent down the axon

permeability

This is the ability for some ions to cross the membrane more easily than others

Resting Neuron

When there is more positive ions outside the membrane of the neuron, here the neuron is polarized and will not send a signal (-70mV)

Depolarization

When the strong negative charge of the inside of the cell has enough positive ions enterso that the charge changes from around -70mV to at least -55mV. This will trigger theneuron to fire an action potential

Repolarization

The process in which the neuron goes back to its resting potential, channels will openup letting more positive ions outside of the cell membrane

Refractory period

A time when the neuron can not fire, the neuron is waiting for repolarization to occur.This prevents signals being sent in both directions down the axon

synapse

A small pocket of space betweenthe axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of thenext neuron, less than 1 millionth of an inch

electrical synapse

Electrical synapses are used for messages that need to be sent quickly and immediately, one neuron is typically connected to another.

Chemical synapses

use neurotransmitters to deliver messages across a synaptic gap, which takes more time than an electrical synapse

neurotransmitter

A chemical messenger sent by a neuron, normally categorized as excitatory or inhibitory

synaptic gap.

A narrow space between two neurons, specifically the presynaptic terminal of one neuron and the postsynaptic terminal of the next neuron

reuptake

This is when the sending neuron at the presynaptic terminal, reabsorbs neurotransmitters from the synapse

Describe the difference between the presynaptic terminal and postsynaptic terminal

The ends of neuronsthatare connected by a synapse. The presynaptic terminal bud contains neurotransmitters to be released. Thepostsynaptic receives the neurotransmitters from the synapse

Excitatory neurotransmitters

will increase the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

inhibitory neurotransmitters

will decrease the likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential

hyperpolarization

This is when the insideof a neuron becomes more negative which moves it fartheraway from its threshold or intensity needed for an action potentia

Acetylcholine

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory

• Dopamine

Helps with movement, learning ,attention, emotions, known alsoas a natural drug because of how it impacts your feelings &emotion

Serotonin

Impacts hunger, sleep, arousal, and mood

Endorphins

Helps with pain control

Epinephrine

Same chemical as adrenaline, helps the body respond to highemotional situations by increasing blood pressure, heart rate, andalertness & helps form memories

Norepinephrine

Increases blood pressure, heart rate, and alertness

Glutamate

Involved with excitatory messages, helps with long term memoryand learning

GABA

Helps with sleep and movement, this slows down your nervoussystem

• Agonists

will increase the effects ofacertain neurotransmitter,

• Antagonists

ill minimize the effects of a neurotransmitter or stop themcompletely

agonist drugs impact receptors

Agonist drugs work by either binding toreceptorsthat are made for a certain neurotransmitter so that the body will act as though there are more of that neurotransmitter or will block the normal reuptake so that there are more of that neurotransmitter that will stay inthe synapse available to be used

antagonist drugs impact receptors in the synapse

Antagonist drugs will either block thereceptorson the postsynaptic neuron so that the neurotransmitters are not able to bind to them or will block the release ofthe neurotransmitter from the presynaptic axon terminal

example of an agonist

1 Anti-anxiety medications such as Xanax, which increases the neurotransmitter GABA, which calms the persondown. 2) Prozac, which delays the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin, making it more available andhelping elevate or stabilize the person's mood. 3) Opioids, which act like the neurotransmitter endorphins, whichwill help relieve pain and boost happiness. 4) Alcohol, which will bind to GABA receptors, which is why aperson can get tired/relaxed from drinking

example of an antagonist substance

1)Schizophrenia medication, which blocks the receptors for dopamine because the person is thought to have anexcess amount and will reduce their symptoms. 2) Alcohol, which will block the release of glutamate, whichslows down the body's neural activity, such as slurred speech.

Broca’s Area

Responsible for controlling the muscles needed to speak. (Located in the Frontal lobe)

Wernicke’s area

Responsible for theability to comprehend speech andcreate meaningful speech. (Locatedin the Temporal Lobe)

Medulla Oblongata

Controls breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.

pons

Works with cerebellum to coordinate movement and helps coordinate sleep.

Cerebellum

Enables smooth muscle movements, maintains equilibrium

Brainstem

Contains the midbrain, pons, and medulla.Controls basic autonomic functions(breathing, heart rate, digestion,salivation)

• Medulla oblongata

• regulates heart rhythm, blood flow, breathing rate, digestion, vomiting.

• Basal ganglia

• regulates initiation of movements, balance, eye movements, and posture, and functions in processing of implicit memories.

• Thalamus

• relays visual, auditory, taste, and somatosensory information to/from appropriate areas of cerebral cortex.

• Hypothalamus

• controls feeding behavior, drinking behavior, body temperature, sexual behavior, threshold for rage behavior, activation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, and secretion of hormones of the pituitary.

• Hippocampus

• enables formation of new long-term memories

• Cerebral cortex

• center for higher-order processes such as thinking, planning, judgment; receives and processes sensory information and directs movemen