A-Level Product Design Paper 2

What does an iterative design process involve?

What does an iterative design process involve?

Meaning repetitive. A cycle of prototyping, testing, and evaluation to achieve the best result.

What makes a successful product?

Understanding the needs and wants of the customer.

Examples of investigating issues in order to design well.

(Primary investigating techniques)

• Market research

• interviews and focus groups

• human factors (empathetic research)

• product analysis and evaluation (disassembly of existing products)

• ergonomic and anthropometric data.

What is the difference between primary and secondary research?

Primary research is information gathered through self-conducted research methods, while secondary research is information gathered from previously conducted studies

What does anthropometrics mean?

Study of the size and proportions of the human body, along with their capabilities.

What does correct application of anthropometric data result in?

Environments and products that are ergonomic. Which can accommodate the majority of users, enhancing:

• Comfort

• Safety

• Usability

What can happen if ergonomics are incorrect?

Products can be uncomfortable/painful to use, and difficult to operate.

What does research allow the designer to do?

Develop designs and models, research should be ongoing.

The stages which lead to a successful prototype

• Creating a step-by-step, detailed plan of the prototype manufacture E.g tools and equipment required.

• Carry out 3D / hand machine prototyping methods. QA equipment like jigs to be used.

• Test and evaluate the prototype with the suitable involvement of the customers.

• Carry out iterative (repetitive) improvements, where required to optimise the design

Ways of prototyping

CAD/CAM or by hand.

Disadvantages of CAD/CAM?

• Requires experience/training to operate

• can take a long time to produce.

What are the benefits of prototypes?

They provide crucial information that informs further development.

Characteristics of Arts and Crafts (approx. 1850-1915)

Context: A reaction to the loss of traditional manufacturing skills, and the overuse of ornamentation (perhaps from the Industrial Revolution.

Inspired by natural forms and the beauty of timber.

Features: The beauty of materials eg. grain texture and figures to be displayed (oak).

• The use of patterns, natural forms of tiles, wallpaper and textiles.

• Handmade crafted products.

Arts and Crafts Designers

• William Morris (the picture)

• Charles Rennie Mackintosh

• Gustav Stickley.

What was the latter part of Arts and Crafts known as?

Art Nouveau

Which used more natural forms such as flowers leaves and tendrils

Characteristics of Art Deco (approx. 1925)

Context: The end of WW1, aspirational consumers and the growth of mass production. The discovery of Tutankhamun’s Tomb (1922). The Paris Exhibition (1925)

Features: Ziggurat, stepped decorations. Sunburst motive.

• Decorative, elegant and functional.

• Geometrically symmetrical shapes.

• Bold colours: black, gold or chrome

Art Deco designers

• Walter Dorwin Teague (In the picture)

• Clarice Cliff

• Eileen Gray

• Rene Lalique

Characteristics of Modernism (approx. 1919-1933)

Context: Post WW1 Idealism. Industrial methods and materials.

Influences: Bauhaus, a German art school (1919) eventually closed due to pressure from the Nazis. Embraced mass production, to create everyday products for everyday people.

Features: Simple non-decorative forms

• Form follows function. (aesthetics are dictated by the way a product works)

• Geometrically pure forms.

• Used modern materials: tubular steel, glass, plywood,, concrete, etc.

• Neutral colour pallet.

Modernism Designers

Marcel Breuer:

• B33 Chair

• Wassily Lounge Chair (In the definition picture)

They reinforce the idea of functionality, an ornament-free, “machine aesthetic,” approach. His designs were inspired by Alvar Aalto (In the picture) and other designers with similar bent plywood furniture.

Example of form following function.

The Solomon R Guggenheim Museum (1959) designed by Frank Lloyd Wright.

Characteristics of Post-modernism (approx.1981 to end 20th century)

Context: Milan-based collective of designers who were rebelling against the functionality of modernism.

Features: Anthropomorphic and Zoomorphic features.

• Playful, bold, decorative and emotive designs.

• Abstract designs, juxtaposition of geometric forms

• Form over function.

Postmodernist designers.

• Massimo Iosa Ghini (In the picture)

• Paola Navone

• Michele De Lucchi

Example of function following form.

London's MI6 building.

Designed by Sir Terry Farrell.

What is the purpose of a designer?

It is to: Problem solving

Improve existing products

Respond to consumer lifestyle changes, etc.

Philippe Starck (1949)

Designer Info: - French designer

• Focuses on Post-modernism (Less is Bore)

• Designer for Alessi

• Playful Designs

• Modern Materials

• Experimental

Example of work: Juicy Salif Lemon Squeezer (function follows from Modernism) an example of the need for designs to be thought-provoking, sparking a conversation.

• Cost approx. £50

• Space below for a container

• Aluminium Casting

James Dyson (1947)

Designer Info: British serial inventor

• Made thousands of prototypes

• Technology innovator

• Values iterative (repetitive) design processes with modern and contemporary designs.

Example of work: DC01 Vacuum Cleaner

• Introduced a bagless dual cyclone cleaning system

• Colour scheme-aided use

• Injection Moulded ABS

• Uses integral fittings

Margaret Calvert (1936)

Designer Info: Born in South Africa, graphic designer, who replaced fashion signs with text.

• Updated road signage

Example of work: “Men at work” road sign

• Stylised pictogram ( a graphical symbol that conveys meaning through visual resemblance to a physical object)

• Standardised sign system

• Arguably Modernist

• Simple and easily accessible style

Dieter Rams (1932)

Designer Info: German Influential industrial designer.

• Post-Second World War context

• Developed 10 Principles of Good Design

• Influenced Apple’s Jonathan Ive

• Believed in simple, honest, functional design.

Example of work: Braun SK4 (Radio Record Player) Turntable

• Simple user interface

• Sleek and minimal design, very modern.

• Form follows function (Modernist)

Dieter Rams and Post-Second World War Germany

His works reflect his reaction to the needs of post-Second World War Germany, eg. the need for efficient, functional and affordable solutions.

In a similar way to the influence of the WW1 on the Bauhaus. eg. Its philosophy and approach to design were deeply influenced by the challenges and aspirations of the time.

10 Principles of Good Design

Good design:

• is innovative.

• makes a product useful.

• is aesthetic.

• makes a product understandable.

• is unobtrusive.

• is honest.

• is long-lasting.

• is thorough down to the last detail.

• is environmentally friendly.

• is as little design as possible.

Charles and Ray Eames (1907-78)(1912-88)

Designer Info: American husband and wife.

• Industrial and graphic designers, who worked in architecture.

• Plywood modern furniture

• Experimented with a wide range of materials

Example of work: Lounge Chair 670

• Combination of: Industrial Production and Hand Craftsmanship

• Utilised steel, fibreglass and shaped plywood.

• Curvaceous furniture with a modernistic aesthetic.

• Colours aimed for a “warm look”

Significance of the Eames splint

Provided US Navy with plywood leg splints and estimated that 15,000 were made.

Marianne Brandt (1893-83)

Designer Info: German designer. Former Bauhaus student.

• Head of their metal workshop department by 1928

• Form follows function (Modernist)

• Commercially successful products

• Developed a range of geometrically pure kitchenware

Example of work: Tea Infuser MT49

• Typical Bauhaus design: simple, geometric form

• Offset lid is functional in preventing drips

Marc Newson (1963)

Designer Info: Australian Designer

• Designs “catwalk pieces”

• Prioritised Form (Arguably a modernist approach.)

• Uses rounded forms.

• Designs inspired by origami paper folding

• Collaborated with Jonathan Ive on the Apple Watch

Example of work: Lockheed Lounge

• Aircraft-style rivet construction

• Styled as a “blob” of mercury

• Statement rather than functional

• “More comfortable than a bus stop”

• 1 sold for £2.5 million (2015)

What three factors limit designs?

Time, money and quality.

Influence of WW1 (1914-1918) on design

The need for mass production grew. Many traditional designs were modernised. Designs that were made out of wood were then manufactured out of steel tubing.

• Need for functional products with little embellishment.

Major Influence: Bauhaus (Modernism, form follows function) designer Marcel Breuer, large-scale wartime adoption of metal tubing as a replacement for wood. Materials were restricted e.g. canvas, copper wire, leather and wood.

Machines could be easily set up to mass-produce tubular steel furniture.

Entire chairs and table frames could be manufactured without the requirement of any traditional handcrafting skills.

Influence of WW2 (1939-1945) on design

Bombing raids and the need to concentrate on the production of arms manufacture, which resulted in a severe shortage of many goods: raw materials.

Rationing of food and resources was introduced, this was to ensure the fair distribution of essentials.

The rationing of furniture led to the creation of the Utility Furniture Advisory Committee (1942).

Their aim was to:

• Create simple but functional furniture from the limited resources.

• Fulfil basic furniture requirements

• Prioritise newly wed couples/ homeless people due to bombing.

Influence of Contemporary times

Post-war Britain had continued rationing until 1954. People were starting to seek more exciting, decorative and "streamlined" with designers such as Porsche and Loewy, Minor, playing prominent roles in car designing.

Example of Contemporary design: Morris Minor

The role of the Council of Industrial Design (COID)

Utility products remained the norm for a long time after WW2 but a new approach was needed.

The Council of Industrial Design (1944) was set up due to fears of the UK falling behind globally.

2 major exhibitions displayed British Talent:

• Britain Can Make It (1946)

• Festival of Britain (1951)

Gave way to the Design Council

The Design Council Impacts

The role of the Council of Industrial Design (COID) gave way

Gave way to the Design Council:

• Acted as a governing advisory body relating to design

• Focused on product service, experience and design.

Increasing developments:

• Increased the influence of companies for eg. Ikea (‘s Lövet Table)

  • Changed from the “fit to purpose” once in a lifetime, Arts and Crafts influence.

  • To a more enjoyable, fashion and decorative.

The influence of fashion and mass production

Many new polymers were being developed, creating exciting possibilities for designers.

The 1940s saw:

• PVC

• PET

• ABS

• HIPS

• LDPE

• Nylon

• Lycra

  commonly used.

  The demand for mass-produced products was driven by the teenage rock'n'roll/pop culture.

The influence of fashion and decorative design

The 1950s saw ever-changing styles and fashion. Products rapidly changed, responding to user needs and wants.

Shorter lead times and greater competition resulted in products becoming cheaper and readily available.

Manufacturers convinced consumers to "buy in" to a lifestyle by placing furniture for aesthetic reasons.

Today's fashion and design

New technology drives fashion and sales.

Social media is used to target potential consumers.

Celebrity endorsements and product placement:

• Encourage consumers to embark on a brand/lifestyle association path.

Perfect Example: Coke’s “Share a Coke” Integrated Marketing

• Emphasis on personalisation and consumer engagement.

• Encouraged people to share their personalised bottles on social media using the hashtag #ShareaCoke. Igniting a wildfire of user-generated content. By inviting people to share their personalized bottle moments on social media, Coca-Cola didn't just sell a product; it created a social phenomenon

The development of electricity.

1799- Volta invents an early form of battery

1821- Faraday invents electric motor

1879- Edison invents the first incandescent bulb that lasts more than 40 hours

1947- the first transistor was invented by Bell Telephone Laboratories

The significance of Transistors

The 1940s technological development of transistors (semi-conductors), example of products:

• Portable (miniture) radios

• A reduction in the size of other electronics.

  • (More efficient and reliable as well as very small.)

Essentially solid-state versions of old thermionic valves.

The use of Microelectronics in the develop. for new electronic products

• Smaller more powerful products

• Highly portable due to lower power circuitry and better batteries.

  • Music Players

• Multi-functionality due to greater processing power.

The impact of other technological developments. for electronic products eg. Electronic Players

• MP3 compressed digital audio

  • The capacity to store more songs

• Being able to stream music

  • Removed the requirement to store files on devices

• Miniature hard drive

  • Increased storage capability

• Lithium batteries

  • Rechargeable power and a longer battery life

• Capacitive touchscreen

  • Improvements to user control and display interface

The Internet of Things (IoT)

The growing networking of multiple microelectronic devices using wi-fi and the internet.

For example:

• Smart fridges, using cameras and RFID (frequency identifications) which can tell which products have been taken out of the fridge/ used.

• Automation in production

• Automatic JIT manufacturing systems implemented.

Modern and smart materials

Materials/elements that have recently been discovered.

Smart materials react to an external stimulus by changing their properties.

External Stimulus:

• Pressure

• Heat

• Electricity

New materials used in modern design and manufacture

Kevlar, Nomex used in PPE Nitinol used in medical stints

Nanomaterials

Materials that are structured at the nanometer scale, which often results in new material properties that differ from the bulk properties

The discovery of Graphene (nanomaterial)

Discovered in 2004 200x tougher compared to steel transparent yet impermeable Used in Biomedicine, flexible technology.

Precious Metal Clay

Microscopic particles of metals: gold and silver; bound together in a pliable medium, which can be easily hand-shaped before firing at 700°

Used for: Jewellery items

New methods of manufacture

1. Robots (physical machines that replace human workers),

   • cobots (physical machines that work with human workers)

2. AI (the ability of a computer or a robot controlled by a computer to do tasks that are usually done by humans because they require human intelligence and discernment.)

3. Fibre Injection Moulding

   • Parts produced are strong, stiff, and lightweight, facilitating sustainability by reusing carbon-fibre waste.

Advancements in CAD/CAM

• Standardised file formats

  • Connects with a wide range of software

• FEA and CFD

• Cloud-based CAD/CAD software packages

  • Software accessibility from any computer device, which improves designers’ productivity and independence as well as facilitates the growth of mass customisation

Moral and ethical implications

Certain mobile technology we carry around is capable of listening to and recording our conversation.

Cultural Acceptability

It is essential for companies to avoid creating offensive products for their domestic and global markets if potential customers are: offended/alienated = financial costs and wider disadvantages to the business.

Designers must consider:

• Perceptions of customers

  • Stereotypes in design which can be damaging to mental health and progress

• Cultural Significance: the colour of products.

  • Violent video games

  • use of animal fur for garments

• Religious beliefs, traditions and customs.

Sustainable and ethical production

1. Damage caused by metal ore extraction

   • Minas Gerais (Brazil) iron ore mile

   • Killed at least 65 people, 279 missing

Examples: FSC schemes, ensuring sustainable timber use

• Conducting pre-project sustainability reviews

• Locally sourcing materials, reducing product miles

• Implementing International Labour Organisation’s (ILO)

  • Addressing child labour, slavery

  • Initiating fair and safe working practices

Companies becoming more aware of Corporate Social Responsibilities

Lego Group:

• Targeting 100% renewable energy capacity

• Targeting the use of solely sustainable raw materials by 2030

• Working with WWF on methods of reducing emissions

Disney:

• Encourages workers to volunteer for charity

• Provides significant support to natural disasters eg. earthquakes

• Plants trees in rainforest, using film revenue

Sustainable design

The 6 R's of sustainability:

Reduce Refuse Recycle Reuse Repurpose Rethink

Fairtrade

Seeks to address the exploitation of farmers/ craft workers in developing countries.

Organisations such as schools/local authorities seek this mark status to promote:

• Sustainable development

• Increased demand for accredited food and craft

• Benefits for producers

• Active citizenship

Example: Pushpanjali, in India

• Traidcraft, sells ethically sourced products

Inclusive design

Defined by the BSI. Designing for the widest possible audience, enhancing usability and accessibility for everyone. E.g., pedestrian crossing with audible bleep, bright colours and motor underneath.

Designing for disabled people (Inclusive Design)

The Disability Discrimination Act (DDA), has made an impact on many areas such as public transport and accessibility.

Designers need to accommodate a wide range of people without stigmatising them.

e.g. - Updated standards of wider doors for wheelchairs in new houses

• Bright-yellow handrails on a Nottingham tram

• Pedestrian crossing with raised pavements, sensory feedback

• Specialist shops that sell products that can facilitate the use of other products: door handle adaptors.

Stages of Product Life Cycle (PLC)

1. Introduction - products need to be introduced at the right time to have an impact.

2. Growth - If the product has been successfully introduced, then sales and profits should increase.

3. Maturity - If the product continues to be successful, then it will reach peak sales.

4. Decline (and replacement) - As the product is less successful, sales decline and the market eventually shrinks. Before a product is replaced, a new product is already in the growth stage.

Social Problems (Poverty Health and Well Being)

Designers can help society by developing products which aim to raise awareness of social issues.

Designers’ responses example:

• Lack of batteries in parts of Africa.

  • Trevor Bayliss: wind-up radio requiring no batteries.

• Repairing skull injuries

  • NHS: 3D printed polymer implants

• Danger and the expenses of kerosene for lamps in Kenya

  • GravityLight Foundation: “GravityLight” LED lighting

Social Problems (Migration)

Conflict, poverty and victimisation often result in humanitarian organisations providing basic infrastructure for communities and migrants all over the world.

Designers’ responses example:

• Housing

  • Ikea Foundation: Flat-pack better shelter housing

Product Life Cycle (PLC)

Before a product is launched: Designers and manufacturers spend lots of resources on research and development (R&D) It can take a long time for products to break even, many often don't.

PLC:

• Introduction – when the product is introduced. Target early adopters and influential market leaders. For example, firms may offer free product reviews to influential bloggers in the market to gain brand recognition.

• Growth – advertising and word of mouth help the product to increase sales. As sales grow, more firms are willing to stock the product = grow even further.

• Maturity – When the product reaches peak market penetration.

• Decline – the product gets eclipsed by new products

  • Extension: An updated, improved version is released to maintain sales. Eg. smartphones like: Apple and Samsung

Planned Obsolescence

The design/manufacture of products requiring replacement regularly because:

• Unavailability of spare parts/software incompatibility

Building in obsolescence, designers must consider the expected product life length. Changing trends can cause obsolescence.

To enable new products to be successful, old products must be replaced.

What is the design process?

A systematic problem-solving strategy, with criteria and constraints.

To develop many possible solutions to solve or satisfy human needs or wants and narrow down the possible solutions to one final choice.

Defining problems in the design process.

What is the problem?

Who has the problem?

Why is it important solve this problem?

Investigating and analysing problems.

Start by asking what you need to find out and then how you will gather this data. Different types of research can be conducted and different data gathered e.g., primary/secondary data, quantitative/qualitative data.

Analysing information/ideas

To analyse the data you have collected, ask these questions: Are existing products flawless? Can they be improved, how? Who are the potential end users? What is the current market like, and is there a gap? What will the price be?

How to present data

Bar charts, pie charts, histograms, etc.

"Quotes" in bold fonts to highlight key info.

Photographs and other media.

How to gain inspiration for designs.

Mood boards for textures, colours, patterns.

Material samples including swatches, new materials and existing products.

Generating design ideas

Different focus areas, user needs and wants, sustainability, technological innovation.

Collaboration with others.

Illustrating designs

Thumbnail sketches, side views, 2D designs and rough perspective drawings.

Exploded views, marker rendering, 3D CAD images, sectional views.

Producing design specifications

Produced by the outcomes of previous research.

In the commercial world it is a set of requirements agreed by both the client and designer.

The design should therefore aim to meet most, if not all, of the spec points.

The significance of modelling

Modelling is crucial to develop a design in detail.

It can include building mechanisms or electronic systems, material exploration through testing, 3D prints or cardboard mock ups, CAD renderings, etc.

The significance of project planning

Freelance designers and smaller start-up companies frequently do their own project planning.

Mid to large sized companies often employ project managers.

Plans usually indicate the main stages of a project with key dates for hard deadlines and deliverables.

Evaluating Designs

Any designs being developed must be evaluated against the original design spec to ensure compliance.

Client and third-party feedback is crucial.

Testing a product in its environment is necessary and often required by law to ensure it meets safety and legal requirements.

What is a prototype?

An early sample, release or model of a product used to test an idea, gather feedback and improve the final design.

Why is prototyping important?

It helps:

• Identify design problems early on

• iterate (repeat) more quickly

• Compare design solutions

• Get meaningful design feedback

• Design ideas to stakeholders

• Perform user testing early on

• Save time & money

what is visual prototyping?

A visual prototype demonstrates the overall shape and size of a design proposal but doesn't normally feature any working parts.

What is proof of concept?

A proof of concept prototype proves the key design functions and resolves the main technical aspects. Not intended to look like the final product and uses "off the shelf components".

Presentation prototypes

Demonstrate key functionality as well as representing how the product would appear.

Often built from bespoke parts.

Materials close to production grade unless it is not economically viable.

What is rapid prototyping?

Used to quickly fabricate a scale model or a physical component using 3D CAD data.

Methods: Stereolithography Fused deposition modelling Laser sintering

What are the disadvantages of prototyping?

Misunderstanding of objectives, Insufficient analysis, excessive development time.

What is Human Centred Design (HCD)?

Based on the philosophy that developing useful products involves learning from the people for which the solution is being created.

What are the Hannover Principles?

A guiding set of considerations for designers when solving problems of sustainability.

Different approaches to design sustainable products:

A circular economy Life Cycle analysis Biomimicry 6 Rs Hannover principles

What is a systems driven design?

Design that uses systems to distil the complexity of systems in design practice. Methods: Systems analysis New material development Manufacturing innovation Finite element analysis analytical hierarchy process computational fluid dynamics

What is critical analysis?

The analysis of the pros and cons of a product in relation to its specification.

How do you critically analyse?

Test multiple products and designs by a third party opinion.

Refer to your design specification.

Create a range of justified possible modifications to better meet the spec.

Commercial costs and faults

Design flaws can result in harmful situations if the product's safety is compromised.

Product recall can be expensive.

Rectifying faults during testing is easy compared to implementing changes during and after manufacture.

Case study: Boeing 787 recall

During the 1950s: was used to travel from eg. the UK to America in a few hours for design collaboration and communication, which would be carried out in face-to-face meetings.

In contemporary society it was not needed, due to the introduction of micro-electronics in products, introduced web conferencing.

Critical performance testing

Sophisticated tests are often required to critically analyse a product's performance in detail.

Anechoic chambers are used to eliminate noise contamination.

Wind tunnels produce an airstream of known velocity past a vehicle or building to investigate flow dynamics.

UKAS (United Kingdom Accreditation Service)

Approves certification bodies and testing facilities

Choosing UKAS-accredited suppliers can limit product failure and control manufacturing costs.

BSI (British Standards Institution)

A non-profit organisation that develops and publishes standards used in the United Kingdom. The mark on the product shows the standard has been met.

Examples of current BSI in the UK:

BS EN 71 Safety of toys: Mechanical and physical properties

Tests include:

• Tension testing to see if a toy can be ripped apart easily.

• Paint tested for lead.

• Small parts choking hazards test.

Customer guarantees

Some companies use rigorous product testing to increase market increase market share and gain a good reputation.

The importance of feedback

Used to improve a product based on reactions.

Used throughout all design stages.