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moral agent

person or entity who is capable of making ethical decisions and being held accountable for their actions.

Ethical leadership

a leadership style guided by respect for ethical beliefs and values and for the dignity and rights of others.

Integrity

Doing the right thing even when no one is watching

Honesty

Being transparent and truthful

Fairness

Treating everyone equally and justly

Empathy

Understanding others’ perspectives

Accountability

Taking responsibility for actions

Courage

Standing up for what's right, even when it's hard

Respect

Treats others with dignity and fairness

Self-Discipline -

Stays focused and in control of actions

Ethical Decision-Making

Chooses what’s right over what’s easy

Integrity

Fairness

Honesty

Empathy

Courage

Accountability

Respect

Ethical Decision-Making

Self-Discipline

Qualities of an Ethical Leader

Builds trust

Reduces conflicts

Inspires others

Ensures long-term success

Strengthens culture

Importance of Ethics in Leadership

Culture

behaviour peculiar to Homo sapiens, together with material objects used as an integral part of this behaviour.

Universal

generally refers to something that is applicable to all or most cases, situations, or people.

Social Norms

Unwritten rules of behavior accepted by a society.

Traditions and customs

What is acceptable or taboo, When to speak, what to wear, how to act

Culture

is a powerful force shaping our ethics and behavior.

Moral values

vary across cultures due to social norms, traditions, and beliefs.

Cultural relativism

is the idea that morality is not universal, but instead based on the beliefs, traditions, and values of each individual culture.

Security

Universalism

Benevolence

Self-direction

Hedonism

Achievement

Power

Tradition

Stimulation

Concept of Universal Values

Filipino Way

Refers to how Filipino cultural values guide daily behavior, relationships, and decision-making

Pakikisama (Getting along with others)

It is the value of going along with the group to maintain harmony and avoid conflict.

Hiya (Sense of Shame or Modesty)

An internal sense of propriety and self-restraint. It motivates people to act respectfully and avoid disgraceful behavior.

Utang na Loob (Debt of Gratitude)

Refers to a deep moral obligation to repay kindness, not just materially, but emotionally and socially.

Family Orientation (Value for Family First)

Filipinos place high importance on the family as the center of identity, loyalty, and responsibility.

Respect for Elders

Filipinos show deep respect for elders through gestures (like mano) and by valuing their advice, authority, and life experience.

Moral Courage

To act on one’s ethical convictions, even when facing potential negative consequences. It enables individuals to stand up for what is right in the face of adversity.

presence and recognition of a moral situation, moral choice, behavior, individuality, and fear.

Moral courage five major components

Aristotle

described moral courage as a vital virtue that enables individuals to act with confidence and determination in the face of danger or adversity.

Plato

moral courage goes beyond mere physical bravery. He sees it as a virtue rooted in knowledge and wisdom, particularly within the spirited part of the soul (thymoeides), and essential for both individual and societal well-being.

Immanuel Kant

moral courage is fundamentally linked to acting from duty and the good will, not from inclination or self-interest. It involves making a rational choice to do what is morally right, even when faced with opposition, personal risk, or difficult circumstances.

Fear

can manifest as a fear of rejection, fear of failure, or fear of consequences.

Anxiety

can lead to feelings of uncertainty, self-doubt, and apprehension.

Self-doubt

Uncertainty about one’s abilities or judgment can erode confidence and make it more difficult to act with moral courage.

Moral Character

Refers to a set of virtues, values, and ethical behaviors. Guides decision-making, relationships, and social conduct. Not innate; it is formed over time through various influences. Core traits: honesty, empathy, fairness, responsibility, etc.

External/Social Theories

Focus on societal influence.

Internal Theories

Focus on personal growth and reasoning.

Interactional Theories

Focus on person-environment interaction.

Personality/Identity Theories

Focus on identity and lifelong traits.

External/Social Theories

Internal Theories

Interactional Theories

Personality/Identity Theories

Four Theoretical Approaches of Moral Character

Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura

Theory Name - Theorist

Moral behavior is learned by observing role models and seeing consequences. Introduced vicarious learning and reciprocal determinism.

Behaviorism - B.F. Skinner

Theory Name - Theorist

Moral habits are shaped by reward and punishment. Positive reinforcement encourages moral actions (e.g., praise for honesty).

Social Constructivism - Lev Vygotsky

Theory Name - Theorist\

Morality is built through social interaction. Introduced Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)—learning through guided support.

Cultural Relativism - Ruth Benedict

Theory Name - Theorist

Morality is shaped by cultural beliefs and practices. Emphasizes that ethical values vary across societies.

Virtue Ethics - Aristotle

Theory Name - Theorist

Achieve eudaimonia (flourishing) through virtue. Virtues like courage, honesty, and justice become habits through practice. Emphasizes practical wisdom (phronesis) and ethical choice.

Cognitive-Developmental Theory - Lawrence Kohlberg

Theory Name - Theorist

Moral growth occurs in 6 stages, from avoiding punishment to universal ethical principles. Based on reasoning, not just behavior. Development requires reflection and exposure to moral dilemmas.

Psychoanalytic Perspective - Sigmund Freud

Theory Name - Theorist

Human nature is instinctually anti-social and must be socialized. Moral character is a conflict between biological impulses and societal expectations. The superego develops through internalizing social rules.

Psychosocial Development - Erik Erikson

Theory Name - Theorist

Moral growth stems from resolving social and emotional crises at each life stage. Successful resolution develops virtues (e.g., fidelity, care, integrity). Emphasizes lifelong development of moral character through social roles.

Social Learning Theory - Albert Bandura

Theory Name - Theorist

Behavior, environment, and cognition influence each other (reciprocal determinism). Morality is learned through modeling and reinforcement. Emphasizes the role of self-efficacy and observational learning.

Constructivist Theory - Elliot Turiel & William Damon

Theory Name - Theorist

Children distinguish moral rules (justice) from social conventions (etiquette). Moral understanding is actively constructed from experience and interpretation.

Moral Identity Theory - Augusto Blasi

Theory Name - Theorist

Morality becomes central to one’s self-concept. People act morally to preserve psychological integrity. Strong moral identity leads to consistent moral actions.

Psychosocial Virtue Formation - Erik Erikson

Theory Name - Theorist

Identity development is tied to virtues like fidelity and care. Each life stage adds to the foundation of moral character. Emphasizes coherence between self and actions.

Moral Personality Themes - Lawrence Walker

Theory Name - Theorist

Identified four moral identity themes.

Four Domains of Moral Development - Stilwell

Theory Name - Theorist

Attachment Bond

Moral-Emotional Responsiveness

Moral Valuation

Moral Volition

Attachment Bond

Moral-Emotional Responsiveness

Moral Valuation

Moral Volition

Four Domains of Moral Development

Principled-Idealistic (justice, fairness)

Dependable-Loyal (responsibility)

Caring-Trustworthy (empathy)

Confidence (moral agency)

four moral identity themes.

Attachment Bond

Learning respect and compliance.

Moral-Emotional Responsiveness

regulating emotion after wrongdoing.

Moral Valuation

reasoning about values and rules.

Moral Volition

connecting autonomy to moral choice.

Preconventional Level (Childhood)

Around age 8, children lack personal moral understanding. They follow rules set by parents and teachers. Moral choices depend on rewards or punishments received Their reasoning is self-centered, focused on benefits

Stage 1: avoiding punishment

Moral decisions aim to avoid getting punished. Rules are seen as fixed and unchangeable. Intentions behind actions are not considered. Right and wrong judged by consequences only

Stage 2: Self-Interest

Recognize others’ views but focus on self-interest. Right actions benefit self or offer fair exchange. Moral reasoning follows “what’s in it for me?”. Reciprocity seen as a practical, not moral, act

Conventional Level (Adolescence and Adulthood)

Adolescents rely on societal norms and expectations. Moral reasoning follows group rules and authority. Right and wrong judged by social acceptance. Maintaining order seen as morally important behavior

Stage 3: Interpersonal Accord and Conformity

Morality is based on gaining social approval. People want to be seen as “good”. Emphasis on trust, loyalty, and social roles. Actions reflect the desire to please others.

Stage 4: Authority and Maintaining Social Order

Individuals prioritize law, order, and societal stability. Moral choices support laws and social order. Rules are seen as vital for everyone’s well-being. Maintaining social order and fulfilling obligations is paramount

Postconventional Level (Advanced Moral Reasoning)

The highest moral stage. Right and wrong based on personal ethical principles. Decisions guided by justice, fairness, and equality. Moral reasoning goes beyond rules or social approval. Individuals consider impact of choices on others. Few people reach this level of moral reasoning

Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

Rules serve many but may harm individuals sometimes. Higher moral reasoning values life over legal rules. The issues are not always clear-cut

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles

Individuals follow self-chosen principles over laws. Values like justice and human rights guide actions. Will defend beliefs despite consequences or opposition

Conscience

is an inherent mental capacity of healthy individuals. It helps people differentiate between right and wrong. It evaluates and monitors actions based on moral standards. Often seen as the “highest authority” in personal moral judgment.

Immanuel Kant

Conscience is tied to moral law within reason. Believed in the “categorical imperative” - moral duties are universal. Argued that moral obligation implies a higher, divine source. Saw conscience as a rational guide, not just emotion

John Henry Newman

Conscience is the “voice of God within”. More than reason - it involves emotion, relationship, and accountability. It speaks with authority, giving us praise or blame

Rest’s Four-Component Model (James Rest)

Moral Sensitivity

Moral Judgment

Moral Intention

Moral Action

Moral Sensitivity

it involves interpreting the situation and an awareness of the relevant moral factors and implications, including how actions would affect others, which requires perspective taking.

Moral Judgment

The component involved deliberation over possible courses of action and deciding which would be most morally justifiable.

Moral Intention

The moral component involved prioritising moral values over other competing values

Moral Action

moral character referred to skills and strategies that support the moral choice, such as self-control

Social Information Processing – Moral Decision-Making

This model explains how individuals use information from their social environment to make moral decisions. It focuses on how people interpret situations, evaluate others’ intentions, and choose actions based on that understanding.

Dual-Process Theory

This theory states that there are two ways we make moral decisions: quickly and emotionally (System 1), or slowly and logically (System 2). Both systems influence how we judge right and wrong.

Social Intuitionist Theory

This theory suggests that moral decisions are mostly based on quick, automatic feelings (intuitions), not reasoning. People often make a decision emotionally, and then use logic to justify it afterward.

Generations

Group of people born and living during the same time. Share similar significant experiences and societal shifts that shape their values, beliefs, and behaviors.

Millennials

Also known as Generation Y or the Net generation

Individuals born between 1981-1996

The children of baby boomers and older Gen Xers

Came of age during the period of rapid technological advancement, the rise of the internet, and a more globalized world. This generation tend to use gadgets like cellphones, laptops, tablets, computers, and many others.

7 ASCRIBED BASIC TRAITS of millennials

Special

Sheltered

Confident

Conventional

Team-oriented

Achieving

Pressured

Fillennials

Filipinos within the millennial age. Described by the selfie generation and followers of social media. Increased use and familiarity with

communications, media, and digital technology.

3 separate effects on why there’s a difference in

attitudes between generations:

Life cycle or age

Period

Cohort

An ethical challenge refers to the situation whereby every alternative is morally wrong and still one has to make a choice.

An ethical challenge occurs when one does not know how to behave and act in the best way.

Abortion is completely illegal in the Philippines—even in cases

of rape, incest, or danger to the mother’s life. Despite the ban, over 600,000 abortions occur annually, mostly through unsafe and illegal methods. Lack of access to contraceptives and sex education leads to high rates of unplanned pregnancy.

Teenage pregnancy is a major driver of abortion, especially among poor and uneducated youth.

Corruption is the abuse of power for personal gain, often

through bribery, embezzlement, or favoritism.

Corruption weakens public trust and deprives sectors like

healthcare and education of vital funds.

Environmental Ethics

The Philippines faces severe deforestation, pollution, and

climate-related disasters. Mining and logging—often backed by foreign corporations— destroy ecosystems and harm communities. The country

Millennials

Also known as Generation Y or the Net generation Individuals born between 1981-1996 The children of baby boomers and older Gen Xers

Came of age during the period of rapid technological advancement, the rise of the internet, and a more globalized world. This generation tend to use gadgets like cellphones, laptops, tablets, computers, and many others.

Special

Sheltered

Confident

Conventional

Team-oriented

Achieving

Pressured

7 ASCRIBED BASIC TRAITS of millennials

Fillennials

Filipinos within the millennial age. Described by the selfie generation and followers of social media. Increased use and familiarity with communications, media, and digital technology.

Life cycle or age

Period

Cohort

3 separate effects on why there’s a difference in attitudes between generations:

ethical challenge

refers to the situation whereby every alternative is morally wrong and still one has to make a choice.

ethical challenge

occurs when one does not know how to behave and act in the best way.

Abortion

completely illegal in the Philippines—even in cases of rape, incest, or danger to the mother’s life. Despite the ban, over 600,000 abortions occur annually, mostly through unsafe and illegal methods. Lack of access to contraceptives and sex education leads to high rates of unplanned pregnancy.

Teenage pregnancy

is a major driver of abortion, especially among poor and uneducated youth.

Corruption

is the abuse of power for personal gain, often through bribery, embezzlement, or favoritism.

Corruption

weakens public trust and deprives sectors like healthcare and education of vital funds.

Environmental Ethics

The Philippines faces severe deforestation, pollution, and Climate-related disasters. Mining and logging—often backed by foreign corporations— destroy ecosystems and harm communities. The country is among the most climate-vulnerable nations due to rising sea levels and typhoons.

Globalization

allows rich countries to export pollution to poorer ones with weaker environmental laws.

War

C auses widespread violence, displacement, and suffering— especially among civilians. Disinformation and propaganda, fueled by global social media, worsen divisions and incite fear

Child Labor Exploitation

is when children are forced to work in unsafe or exploitative conditions, often for survival. Global demand for cheap goods fuels exploitation in countries like the Philippines. Deprives children of education, health, and childhood—violating their basic rights.

Ethics

Involves questions of right and wrong, values, and how one should live. Asks basic questions about how to live rightly; what values to follow, and what is right or wrong.

Religion

is a belief system centered on divine power, often offering life meaning. A belief system that gives life meaning and affirms a supreme power beyond everyday reality.