Psych 1 (Gade, UC Berkeley) Midterm 3 - Edited

Mechanism Movement (Freud)

Biological mechanisms are behind all thoughts and behaviors

Jean Charcot

Began treating people with hypnosis and other approaches to get at the "unconscious" with Sigmund Freud

Psychodynamic Theory

Personality is based on the interplay of conflicting forces within the individual (Freud) (conscious versus unconscious, which are created with Id, superego, & ego)

Conscious

The thoughts and experiences of which we are aware of that impact our behaviors

Unconscious

The thoughts and experiences of which we are UNAWARE of that impact our behaviors

Id

An unconscious force that constantly seeks satisfaction of basic needs (survival, sex, thirst, hunger, sleep, etc.)

Superego

A preconscious force that's only goal is to push us to do what is 'right' (society's standards)

Ego

A conscious force that we develop in the social world and operates on the reality principle—seeking to satisfy id's and the superego's desires in realistic ways

Freud's Clinical Work

- Focused on accessing the unconscious traumas and/or needs that had to be addressed in order understand a person

- Required bringing the unconscious "up," to change personality or address the abnormal through: Psychoanalysis, Hypnosis (just made people suggestable), Free association (rattle things off & say 1st thing that comes to mind), Dream interpretation, "Freudian Slips" (slips of the mouth that "uncover true thoughts)

Libido (Freud)

Psychosexual energy; an insatiable sexual drive that comes in different forms during our lifetime

Oral stage (Freud)

(0-18 months) Mouth centered stimulation; oral fixations

- If you like oral stimulation, like chewing gum, your mouth wasn't stimulated enough during this stage of development

Anal stage (Freud)

(18-36 months) Potty training focus; anal retentiveness

- Potty training went bad, therefore you want total control over things (over controlling)

Phallic stage (Freud)

(3-6 years) Genital/gender exploration; penis envy (lifelong envy/trauma, that's why women develop depression), gender intensification (hypermasculinity), castration fear (hypermasculinity, the reason boys bond with dad after falling in love with mom)

Latency (Freud)

(6 to puberty) No libido

Genital stage

(puberty +) Maturation of sexual interest; sexual issues

Anna O (Bertha Pappenheim)

Important case study by Freud (one of many referenced); influenced his psychodynamic theory

Claimed Anna forgot how to do x, y, & z, but after hypnosis? Problem solved

Concerns about whether or not they're true (he admitted some are fake)

Franz Anton Mesmer

*As of 2025 I do not see anything about this in the notes

First hypnotist; magnétisme animal; "mesmerizing"

Induction, Relaxation, Suggestion

*As of 2025 I see no mention of this in the notes

The 3 steps of hypnosis

Posthypnotic Amnesia

*As of 2025 I do not see anything about this in the notes

When a person cannot remember what happened while he/she was hypnotized

Carl Jung

- Freud's "heir apparent"; broke with Freud's work because of his differing beliefs about personality formation (that there was more to it than childhood and sex)

- Personality is formed from both conscious and unconscious forces

- Our personal unconscious did not contain the basic instincts that Freud proposed (primarily the id)

- Spiritual component to personality

a) Archetypes

b) Collective unconscious (believed that we were born with it)

Archetypes

Vague, existential, and spiritual images/concepts found within our personality; some inherited from ancestors, others unique to the individual

Alfred Adler

- Superiority Theory

- Another early student of Freud's, but broke away because of differing theories (too much focus on sex)

- Thought Freud and Jung were crazy, that there was no spiritual, unconscious mind

Superiority Theory

Personality was based on our attempts to pursue our strengths and make up for our shortcomings

- Individual psychology

2 driving forces for personality:

- Striving for superiority (seeking personal excellence)

- Inferiority complex (exaggerated feeling of weakness due to lack of skill)

; we constantly deem what we are good and bad at & that decides what we pursue and what we do not

Individual Psychology

An approach to study the personality of a person as a whole rather than in separate parts (id/ego/superego)

Striving for Superiority

A desire to seek personal excellence and fulfillment

Inferiority Complex

An exaggerated feeling of weakness, inadequacy, and helplessness due to assessing a lack in a skill

Carl Rogers

- Formed theory of personality and clinical psychology focused on the positive aspects of individual

- Humanistic Approach

- Self-Actualization

- Actual self

- Ideal self

Both versions of our selves are guideposts for our day-to-day behavior

*Rogers was a very spiritual guy

Humanistic Approach

An approach to psychology that postulated that people are constantly striving for betterment and to reach a point of accurate self representation and a point self actualization

Self Efficacy

Belief in our ability to do x, y, & z

Allows us to assess how realistic our ideal self is

Self-Actualization

The achievement of one's full potential, that results in great accomplishments, and is obtained through the alignment of selves

Actual Self

The person that we are

Ideal Self

The person that we want to be; rarely achieved

Abraham Maslow

- Hierarchy of Needs

- Humanist; believed concept of self-actualization

Hierarchy of Needs

Chart that shows "needs" that have to be met for a person to pursue self-actualization

From top to bottom:

Self-Actualization

- realization of personal potential, self-fulfillment, peace, etc

Esteem

- prestige, recognition, independence, etc

Love/Belonging

- community, intimacy, relationships, etc

Safety

- personal & financial security, law, protection from elements

Physiological

- sex, shelter, food, water, etc

Social Cognitive Model

- Individuals are constantly working to understand their environment

- Develop personality from our social environment, as a byproduct of learning

- Interacting with environment to obtain things that we learn to want, through techniques that we learn to use

Albert Bandura

- Focused his research on how we learn to develop personality related behaviors

- Modeling

- Bobo doll experiments (desensitization through observation)

Modeling

Process of developing behaviors based on the observation of others and the outcomes that they experience (ex. Bobo doll experiments)

Walter Mischel (did research)

- Student of George Kelly (cognitive approach to personality)

- Focused research on the cognitions that we develop that form our personality

- Thoughts are more important than behavior for personality (Marshmallow experiment: they way a child acted at 4 was similar when they were 14 -> 24, etc)

- Expectations of results from behaviors (ex. party for introverts vs. extroverts)

- Interpretations of the situation

- Competencies

- Delay of gratification

Competencies

The skill sets that we have available to deal with social situations; carried over to other abilities; last long time

Delay of Gratification

The ability to withstand temptation in order to achieve a greater reward (ex. marshmallow study)

Barnum Effect

Named after showman P.T. Barnum

The tendency to accept generalized personality descriptions as accurate descriptions of one's unique personality

Likely to attribute characteristics to ourselves because find some similarities (ex. Buzzfeed quizzes, horoscopes, etc.)

Validity

Accuracy; how "correct" the result/measurement in a test is

Reliability

Precision; how close multiple results of a test are to each other

; free from random error

MMPI Test

- Devised empirically (not theoretically)

- Most widely used by psychologists

- ~300-600 True/False questions; 10 clinical scales

- Used to assess for disorders

Limitations:

- Can a single test measure the personality of so many people?

- Overlap between scales

- Misleading/outdated terms (hysteria, masculine/feminine, etc)

NEO PI-R Test

- 5 Factor Personality Model (Costa and McCrae)

- 240 items on a "likert scale" (least to most)

- OCEAN (Openness to new experiences, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)

- Used to measure "normal" personality

Openness to new experiences, Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism

5 factors measured with NEO PI-R; "The Big 5"

MBTI (Myers-Briggs) Test

- Used in workplace and in schools

- Categorizes people into 16 types (combinations of 4 traits)

- 4 Traits: Extrovert/Introvert, Sensing/Intuitive, Thinking/Feeling, Judging/Perceiving

Limitations:

- Does not capture all Big-5 traits

- Categorization (vv. continuum) perspective

a) Median-split scoring

Projective Tests

- Projected on another object or person because embarrassed/ashamed/etc.

- Abstract; open to interpretation

- Not very good but can help patient get out what they can't say

"Protected:" Answers analyzed by trained psychologists

"Ambiguous:" Ambiguous stimuli promotes personal exploration

"Open to interpretation:" Results can be interpreted differently by different people

Rorschach Inkblots

- Projective Test involving inkblots

- Much critique; used to confirm what psychologists already knew; many wrongfully labeled mentally disturbed

TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) Morgan & Murray (1935)

- Projective Test

- Person describes story for a given picture/image in black and white (test contains 30 images)

- Most widely used projective test

Handwriting Analysis

*I also do not see this in 2025 material

- Projective Test

- Analyzing handwriting

Implicit Personality Test

*Not recognizable in 2025 material

- Move away from self-reporting

- Reaction times to assess thoughts

- Quantitative data collection

Stroop Test

*Unfound in 2025

- Implicit Personality Test

- using colors and words

Personality

All the consistent ways in which the behavior of one person differs from and is similar to that of others, especially in social situations

Traits

A distinguishing character or quality that can be used to describe consistent behaviors in an individual

Gordon Allport

- First trait psychologist

- Very successful in school; attended Harvard as an undergraduate and majored in psychology

- Met with Freud after graduating while visiting one of his brothers in Vienna where he had his "breakthrough moment" (Freud tried to like counsel Allport and it was a goofy misunderstanding)

- "Rogue psychologist"

- wanted to focus on regular, "healthy" people

- Believed traits to be the heart of personality

a) discussed their inheritability (genetics were still theoretic at the time)

Explored frequency, intensity (strength), & range (situations that elicit them) of trait occurrences

- State-Trait Distinction

State-Trait Distinction

- Gordon Allport

- States, Traits, Cardinal Traits, Central Traits, Secondary Dispositions

States

Momentary reactions to situations that are a direct result of the social environment

Allport's Traits

Stable behaviors that occur across situations and time

Cardinal Traits

Traits that are pervasive enough in that they tend to dominate one's personality or even life

Central Traits

Traits that cover a number of behaviors, but are not the dominant feature of one's life

Secondary Dispositions

Traits that manifest themselves only on rare occasions, and play a minimal role in one's life

Openness to new experience

A tendency to enjoy new intellectual experiences and new ideas

Conscientiousness

A tendency to show self-discipline, to be dutiful, and to strive for achievement and competence

Extraversion

A tendency to seek stimulation and to enjoy the company of others

Agreeableness

A tendency to be compassionate toward others

Neuroticism

A tendency to experience unpleasant emotions relatively easily

Shortcomings of "The Big 5"

- Not always a good predictor of other cultures (started with the English dictionary)

- Might have too few variables (what about religion? humor?)

- Might have too many variables ([+] correlation between E & O, [-] correlation between N & O, and N & E)

- Might not be a good predictor of specific behaviors (why I want burritos versus noodles, pink or purple shoes, etc)

Differences in Traits

- As we age

- Across generations

The Big 7

- Number of traits in children

- Harry Potter Study (sociability and activity)

The Big 3

Number of traits in elderly

Genes

- Determinants of personality traits

-Twin studies

Learning Approach

Our personality is the result of our recognized membership in groups, our roles in these groups, and the norms of the groups (Gender roles, Racial norms, Family traditions, Cultural norms and roles)

Self-administered labels (kind of self-fulfilling bias as well)

; Learning theory of traits: social interactions and identity shape personality traits and our interpretations of them

Anchoring Effect

Our judgment of personality levels can be impacted by those around us and our own experiences

Ex: a student at Cal might say that they are 6/10 intelligent because they are comparing themselves to those around them (at Cal), when really, they are a 9/10 (bc they got into Cal)

Solution: "How many times a week do you feel/do x, y, & z?"

Substance Use Disorders

A cluster of cognitive, behavioral, and physiological symptoms indicating that the individual continues using the substance despite significant substance-related problems

Symptoms (2+ symptoms must be present for >1 year):

Impaired control over substance

Often taken in larger amounts or for longer than intended

Persistent desire/unsuccessful efforts to cut down or control use

A great deal of time spent to obtain, use, or recover from effects

Craving/urge to use

Social Impairment:

Failure to fulfill obligations at work, school, or home

Continued use despite relationship problems

Big social/occupational/recreational acts given up or reduced

Risky Use:

Repeated use in physically dangerous situations (e.g., driving)

Continued use despite problems (physical or psychological)

Pharmacological Effects:

Tolerance

Withdrawal

Physical Dependence

- Biological Dependence

- Body's growing tolerance of the drug leads to withdrawal if drug is removed

Withdrawal:

- Feeling of jumpiness/nervousness/shakiness

- Anxiety

- Irritability

- Easily excited

- Mood swings

- Fatigue

- Depression

Psychological Dependence

- Neurochemical Dependence

- Presence of antecedents cue the brain to strongly ANTICIPATE and desire the substance and its reinforcing consequences

- Liking = pleasure obtained by taking the drug

- Wanting = craving for drug

- Addiction = strengthened wanting

- Dopamine system becomes sensitive to the drug and cues associated with drug (e.g., needles, rolling papers, etc)

Nucleus Accumbens

- Location in brain that houses dopamine receptors

- "Attention and Habit Center"

Cue, Routine, Reward

Steps that lead to dependence

The more that this cycle happens, the earlier the reward (a spike in dopamine) occurs

Nicotine Dependence

*as of 2025, GSI said this will not be relevant information

Treatments for this dependence:

- Replacement Source (eg: Patch)

- Low-Tar Cigarette

Alcoholism

*as of 2025, GSI said this will not be relevant information

Treatments for this dependence:

- Alcoholics Anonymous

- Antabuse

- Harm Reduction

- Contingency Management

Opiate Dependence

*as of 2025, GSI said this will not be relevant information

Treatments for this dependence:

- "Cold Turkey"

- Contingency Management

- Substitute (eg: methadone)

DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders)

- Attempts to generate uniform definitions and standards for diagnosis

- Designed to list the "accepted labels" for all psychological disorders

- Also looks at social, mental, and functionality issues that need to be considered

- Attempts to be atheoretical—not be linked to a clinical approach

Axis 1

- Psychological and Developmental Disorders

- Personality Disorders and Intellectual Disabilities

- General Medical Conditions

Axis 2

Psychosocial and Environmental Problems

Axis 3

World Health Org. Disability Assessment Schedule (Cognition, Mobility, Self-care, Getting along, Life activities, Participation)

Problems with DSM

- Differentiating normal from abnormal is difficult (most often fall on a continuum, not category)

- Manifestation of disorders often vary across individuals diagnosed with the same disorder—both in the intensity and the symptoms of the disorder

- Situational factors not taken into account

- Disorder classifications arbitrary-- and some seem more about reactions to issues than clinically related (ex: homosexuality, autism spectral disorder)

- Almost anyone seeking help diagnosed with a mental disorder

Advantages of DSM

- Used in almost every reputable clinic and by almost every reputable clinician today

- Provided time saving, extremely effective way of diagnosing and treating mental disorders

- Continually adapting

Somatogenic Hypothesis

Mental disorders are the result of physical causes (illnesses/changes to the brian) that are incurable

Phillipe Pinel (1793)

- Was put in charge of the Parisian hospital system

- Immediately attempted to challenge philosophy of mental issues being illness related and spreadable

; argued unconscious & mental difficulties might affect behavior

Bio-psycho-social Model

Abnormal behavior and/or thoughts is the result of biological, sociocultural, and/or psychological factors that combine and interact

Diathesis-stress Model

Biological predispositions and environmental stress are both necessary components for the manifestation of abnormal behaviors or thoughts

Psychosurgery

- Treatment based on idea that abnormal is caused by physical abnormalities (bio)

- In the past, approaches like Electro-Convulsive Shock Therapy (ECT), and lobotomies

Medication

- Treatment that assumes there is neurochemical link to certain disorders and mental issues (bio)

-Benefits: Quick results and powerful reduction of symptoms, wide range of symptom applications

-Cons: Addiction, tolerance effects, long term value concerns (waning effects and no end), concern over what's being "fixed" (car analogy)

Genetic Counseling Debate

New version of the biological approach looks to find the genetic components that make the developmental of a disorder more likely in an individual

Psychotherapy (Introduced by Freud)

- Treatment of psychological disorders and mental issues through methods that include interactive relationship between a trained therapist and a client or clients (psycho)

- Belief: a number of mental disorders can be treated through a therapeutic/conversational approach

- Main goal: changing some aspect of our social world or thinking/thought processing/behavior in order to help with a mental disorder/abnormal behavior/mental issue

Psychoanalysis

- First approach to psychotherapy

- Developed and introduced by Sigmund Freud

- Based on his psychodynamic theory; primary attempt is to identify unconscious thoughts, memories, and emotions that are disturbing, bring them to our conscious mind, and then address them

- Free associations, Dreams, Hypnosis, Talk therapy

- Interactive, expensive, can take decades

Behavioral Approach

- Treatment technique that utilizes the principles of behaviorism to address abnormal behaviors/thoughts or disorders, esp. classical & operant conditioning

- Begins with clear, well-defined behavioral goals, and then attempts to achieve those goals through different learning topics and the strengthening of behavioral connections

- Today, is usually only used for specific disorders/problems (e.g. anxiety disorders, drug abuse, and anorexia/bulimia)

Cognitive-Behavioral Approach

- Treatment technique that seeks to improve people's psychological well-being by changing their thoughts, emotions, and or behaviors that are linked to a disorder or stressful experiences

- Considered the "gold-standard"

- Emphasizes problems are a result of one's interpretation of their situation that they are experiencing, their interpretation of themselves, or the behaviors that they choose to elicit in different social situations as irrational & emotional (rational-emotive behavioral therapy)

Concerns behaviors, thoughts, and feelings

Rational-emotive Behavior Therapy

Form of Cognitive Behavioral Theory that assumes that problems are a result of one's inappropriate/irrational emotional reactions to situations