Intro to Psychology Exam 2 Review

These flashcards cover essential vocabulary terms and concepts from the Intro to Psychology course, focusing on key points for the upcoming Exam 2.

Teratogen

An agent that causes malformation or abnormal development in embryos or fetuses.

Piaget's Stages of Development

The theory that children progress through four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.

Attachment Theory

A psychological model that describes the dynamics of long-term interpersonal relationships and the bonds formed between a child and their caregivers.

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

The theory suggesting that emotions occur as a result of physiological reactions to events.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

A motivational theory consisting of a five-tier model of human needs, from physiological needs to self-actualization.

Drive Reduction Theory

A theory suggesting that biological needs create an aroused state that drives an organism to reduce the need, by, for example, eating or drinking.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

A type of psychotherapeutic treatment that helps individuals understand the thoughts and feelings that influence behaviors.

Self-Efficacy

The belief in one’s capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments.

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency for people to overemphasize dispositional factors and underestimate situational factors when explaining other people's behavior.

Dissociative Disorders

A group of disorders characterized by an involuntary escape from reality, where a person experiences a disconnection between thoughts, identity, consciousness, and memory.

Gross Motor Skills

Physical abilities involving large muscle actions, such as crawling or walking.

Fine Motor Skills

Physical abilities involving smaller muscle actions, such as grasping a toy or writing.

Pruning

The process of synaptic elimination in the brain, crucial for effective brain function during development.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

A theory suggesting childhood experiences (driven by sexual energy, libido) shape adult personality through distinct stages, with potential for fixation if conflicts are unresolved.

Assimilation (Piaget)

Integrating new information into existing cognitive schemas.

Accommodation (Piaget)

Adjusting cognitive schemas to incorporate new information.

Schema (Piaget)

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, typically seen in the preoperational stage.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning

A theory discussing moral development through three levels and six stages, exemplified by the Heinz Dilemma.

Temperament

Individual differences in emotional and behavioral styles that appear early in life.

Harlow’s Studies of Attachment in Monkeys

Research that illustrated the importance of comfort and contact comfort over food in the formation of attachment bonds.

Strange Situation Test

A procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to evaluate attachment styles in children based on their reactions to separation from and reunion with a caregiver.

Secure Attachment

An attachment style characterized by a child's positive response and seeking comfort upon reunion with their caregiver after a brief separation.

Insecure Attachment

An attachment style characterized by a child's negative, ambivalent, or avoidant response upon reunion with their caregiver after a brief separation.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

The theory proposing that emotional experience and physiological responses to a stimulus occur simultaneously.

Two-Factor Theory (Schachter-Singer)

The theory that emotions are based on two factors: physiological arousal and a cognitive label of that arousal.

Sympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that activates the 'fight-or-flight' response, preparing the body for action during stressful situations.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

The part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, restoring it to a state of rest and repletion; associated with 'rest and digest'.

Role of Amygdala in Emotion

The amygdala is a brain region critical for processing emotions, particularly fear and aggression.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A principle stating that performance on a task is best at intermediate levels of arousal, and declines at very low or very high arousal levels.

Intrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a behavior for its own sake, out of personal interest or enjoyment.

Extrinsic Motivation

Engaging in a behavior for external rewards or to avoid negative outcomes.

Growth Mindset

The belief that abilities and intelligence can be developed through dedication and hard work, rather than being fixed traits.

Id (Freud)

The primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains basic drives and impulses, operating on the pleasure principle.

Ego (Freud)

The realistic part of the mind that mediates between the desires of the id and the moral constraints of the superego, operating on the reality principle.

Superego (Freud)

The moral component of the personality, representing internalized ideals and societal rules, and striving for perfection.

Defense Mechanisms

Unconscious psychological strategies employed by the ego to cope with reality, anxiety, and maintain a positive self-image (e.g., repression, rationalization).

Humanistic Theories

Psychological perspectives that emphasize personal growth, self-actualization, and the importance of free will and individual potential.

Unconditional Positive Regard

According to Carl Rogers, an attitude of complete acceptance and support for a person regardless of what they say or do.

Self-Actualization

The realization or fulfillment of one's talents and potentialities, a drive present in everyone according to humanistic psychology.

Five-Factor Model (Big Five)

A widely accepted model of personality traits that includes Extraversion, Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Openness to Experience.

Learned Helplessness

A condition in which a person suffers from a sense of powerlessness, arising from a traumatic event or persistent failure to succeed, often due to a perceived lack of control over the outcome.

Self-Serving Bias

The tendency for individuals to attribute positive events to their own character but attribute negative events to external factors.

Compliance

A change in behavior in response to a direct request from another person or group.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard or social norms.

Milgram’s Study

A controversial social psychology experiment that examined obedience to authority figures, demonstrating willingness to shock others when instructed despite ethical concerns.

Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon

The tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Informational Influence

Conforming to others' beliefs or behaviors because we view them as a source of accurate information, especially in ambiguous situations.

Normative Influence

Conforming to others' beliefs or behaviors in order to be accepted or liked by the group and avoid social rejection.

Stanford Prison Study

A psychological experiment that aimed to investigate the psychological effects of perceived power, focusing on the impact of roles and social situations on human behavior.

Social Loafing

The tendency for individuals to put forth less effort when working in a group compared to when working alone.

Bystander Effect

The phenomenon in which individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present.

Just-World Hypothesis

The belief that the world is inherently fair and that people get what they deserve, implying that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people.

Problem-Focused Coping

A stress management strategy that involves attempting to alleviate stress by addressing the source of the problem directly.

Emotion-Focused Coping

A stress management strategy that involves managing the emotional distress caused by a situation, rather than changing the situation itself.

DSM-5

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, a widely used classification system for mental disorders by clinicians.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by excessive, uncontrollable, and often irrational worry about various aspects of life, lasting for at least six months.

Phobias

Intense, irrational, and persistent fears of specific objects or situations (e.g., social phobia, simple phobia, agoraphobia).

Panic Disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden episodes of intense fear accompanied by physical symptoms.

OCD (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)

A disorder involving unwanted, intrusive, and repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or repetitive, ritualistic behaviors (compulsions) designed to reduce anxiety.

Dissociative Amnesia

A type of dissociative disorder characterized by an inability to recall important personal information, usually of a traumatic or stressful nature, that is too extensive to be explained by ordinary forgetfulness.

Dissociative Fugue

A rare dissociative disorder characterized by sudden, unexpected travel away from home or one's customary daily activities, accompanied by amnesia for significant personal identity and past.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

A severe dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct identity states or personality states that recurrently take control of behavior, along with memory gaps.

Major Depression

A mood disorder characterized by a severe depressive episode with significant impairment in functioning, including symptoms like persistent sadness, loss of interest, and changes in sleep or appetite.

Persistent Depressive Disorder (Dysthymia)

A chronic form of depression characterized by a low mood that lasts for an extended period, typically at least two years in adults, with less severe symptoms than major depression.

Bipolar Disorder

A mood disorder characterized by significant fluctuations between periods of elevated mood (mania or hypomania) and periods of depression.

Schizophrenic Disorders (Positive Symptoms)

Symptoms of schizophrenia that involve additions to normal experience, such as hallucinations (sensory experiences without external stimuli) and delusions (false beliefs).

Schizophrenic Disorders (Negative Symptoms)

Symptoms of schizophrenia that involve the absence or reduction of normal behaviors and emotions, such as lack of motivation, flattened affect, or reduced speech.

Borderline Personality Disorder

A personality disorder characterized by pervasive instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image, affects, and marked impulsivity.

Antisocial Personality Disorder

A personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others, often involving deceit, impulsivity, and lack of empathy.

Biomedical Therapy

Therapeutic approaches that involve the use of medications or medical procedures to treat psychological disorders.

Psychotherapy

Any type of therapeutic interaction or treatment given by a trained professional aimed at improving mental health and well-being through verbal and psychological techniques.

Lobotomies

An early psychosurgical procedure that involved severing connections in the brain’s frontal lobes, used to treat severe mental illness but often resulting in undesirable side effects.

Antipsychotic Drugs

Medications primarily used to manage symptoms of psychosis, such as delusions and hallucinations, often by blocking dopamine receptors.

SSRIs (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors)

A class of antidepressant drugs that work by increasing the levels of serotonin in the brain by blocking its reabsorption by the transmitting neuron.

ECT (Electroconvulsive Therapy)

A medical procedure in which controlled electrical currents are passed through the brain to induce a brief seizure, used to treat severe depression and other mental illnesses.

TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation)

A non-invasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain, used to treat depression and other conditions.

Free Association

A psychodynamic therapy technique where the patient speaks freely about whatever comes to mind, allowing unconscious thoughts and feelings to surface.

Transference

In psychodynamic therapy, the process by which a patient unconsciously redirects feelings and desires (often originating from childhood relationships) from other personal relationships onto the therapist.

Behavioral Therapy

Therapeutic approaches that focus on changing maladaptive behaviors through the application of learning principles, such as conditioning (e.g., counter conditioning, exposure conditioning).

Aversive Conditioning

A behavioral therapy technique that involves pairing an unwanted behavior with an unpleasant stimulus to reduce the frequency of the behavior.

Exposure Conditioning

A behavioral therapy technique that gradually exposes patients to feared objects or situations in a safe environment to reduce anxiety and phobic responses.

Cognitive Therapy

A type of psychotherapy that challenges and changes unhelpful cognitive distortions and negative thought patterns, focusing on the idea that thoughts influence emotions and behaviors.

Reflection (Humanistic Therapy)

A humanistic therapy technique where the therapist mirrors back the client's feelings and thoughts to promote self-discovery and deeper understanding.

Placebo Effect

The improvement of symptoms that occurs due to a patient's belief in the efficacy of a treatment, rather than the intrinsic therapeutic properties of the treatment itself.

Psychiatrists

Medical doctors specializing in mental health, authorized to prescribe medication and capable of providing psychotherapy and other treatments.

Clinical Psychologists

Mental health professionals typically holding a doctoral degree in psychology, focused on diagnosing and treating mental disorders primarily through psychotherapy and psychological assessment.

Clinical Social Workers

Mental health professionals who provide therapy and support services, often in community or medical settings, focusing on the interaction between individuals and their environment.

Counselours

Mental health professionals who offer guidance and support for various life challenges and mental health issues.