Learning and Memory – Chapters 6 & 7

A set of 30 question-and-answer flashcards covering major concepts in learning (classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning) and memory (information-processing model, working memory, recall vs. recognition).

What is the psychological definition of learning?

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience.

In classical conditioning, what are the terms for a stimulus that naturally elicits a response and that automatic response?

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and unconditioned response (UCR).

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a conditioned response.

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A learned reaction elicited by the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occurred.

What do we call the tendency for a conditioned response to occur to stimuli similar to the original CS?

Stimulus generalization.

Which term describes learning to respond only to the exact conditioned stimulus and not to similar ones?

Stimulus discrimination.

In classical conditioning, what is extinction?

The gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response when the CS is presented repeatedly without the UCS.

What is spontaneous recovery?

The sudden reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a rest period without additional conditioning.

Which researcher discovered classical conditioning while studying the digestive system of dogs?

Ivan Pavlov.

Which psychologist showed that human emotions could be classically conditioned in the Little Albert study?

John B. Watson.

Which psychologist formulated the principles of operant conditioning with the Skinner box?

B. F. Skinner.

What type of responses are modified by classical conditioning—voluntary or reflexive?

Reflexive (automatic) responses.

What type of responses are modified by operant conditioning—voluntary or reflexive?

Voluntary responses.

What is operant conditioning?

A form of learning in which the consequences of behavior increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will occur again.

What is a reinforcer?

Any consequence that increases the probability that the behavior it follows will be repeated.

What distinguishes a primary reinforcer from a secondary reinforcer?

A primary reinforcer satisfies a biological need (e.g., food), whereas a secondary reinforcer gains its value through association with primary reinforcers (e.g., money, tokens).

What is shaping?

The process of reinforcing successive approximations of a desired behavior until the target behavior is achieved.

In operant conditioning, what is positive reinforcement?

Strengthening a behavior by presenting a pleasant stimulus after the behavior.

In operant conditioning, what is negative reinforcement?

Strengthening a behavior by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior.

Taking aspirin to stop a headache is an example of which kind of reinforcement?

Negative reinforcement.

What is punishment in operant conditioning?

A consequence that decreases the likelihood that the preceding behavior will occur again.

Name two factors that increase the effectiveness of punishment.

Immediate timing, sufficient (but not excessive) intensity, and consistent application.

What is a token economy?

A behavior-modification system in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens that can be exchanged for tangible rewards.

What is behavior modification?

The application of learning principles—especially operant conditioning—to change maladaptive behavior.

What is biofeedback?

A technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes by providing real-time information about those processes.

What is observational learning (modeling)?

Learning that occurs by watching and imitating the behavior of others.

According to social learning theory, does reinforcement influence observational learning?

Yes; observed or vicarious reinforcement can increase the likelihood of imitating a model’s behavior.

According to the information-processing model, what are the three basic memory processes?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Why is short-term memory often called working memory?

Because it is the mental workspace where information is temporarily held and actively manipulated for current tasks.

What is the main difference between recall and recognition memory tests?

Recall requires generating information from memory with minimal cues, whereas recognition only requires identifying previously learned information among alternatives.