psych exam study 3

five developmental tasks of adolescence

1) Accept full-grown body and changes of puberty
2) Acquire adult ways of thinking
3) Develop more mature ways of relating to peers of both sexes
4) Consolidate an identity
5) Attain greater independence from the family (emotional, monetary, etc.)

puberty definition

The set of biological processes that change the immature child into a sexually mature person

puberty timing

• Occurring earlier now (likely due to improved healthcare and diets)

• Girls = 10-15; boys = 11.5-17

puberty major changes in overall body growth

Youth progress through events at different rates, but all generally follow the same sequence of development - Characterized by uneven growth (asynchrony)

primary vs. secondary sexual characteristics

Primary sexual characteristics: involve reproductive organs directly
Secondary sexual characteristics: external physical changes that help distinguish male and female bodies

growth spurt for each sex

Growth spurt = first outward sign of puberty, involves large increases in size, strength, weight (gain 50-75lbs); girls start growth spurt earlier (often age 10) and lasts about 2 1/2 years; boys start growth spurt later (around 12.5) and grow for a longer period of time

Reverse of cephalocaudal trend - feet, hands, legs grow before trunk

Increase in appetite

Increase in size and activity of oil-producing glands

See changes in muscle-fat ratio (girls add more fat than boys and boys gain more muscle strength than girls)

general changes

Increases in levels of androgens and estrogens for girls & boys, but levels are sex-specific

Boys get more androgens like testosterone -> muscle growth, gains in body size, sex characteristics (facial & body hair)

Girls get more estrogens -> cause breasts & uterus to mature, fat to accumulate (makes womanly curves), regulate menstrual cycle

factors affecting pubertal timing – roles of genes

tend to reach puberty at about the age our parents did

See role of genes via twin studies:
- Identical = 2 months difference
- Fraternal = 12 months difference

factors affecting pubertal timing environment

utrition, weight, dieting, exercise (athletes hit puberty later b/c they don't have enough fat)

factors affecting pubertal timing-socioemotional stress

in a stressful home environment, it is adaptive to mature early, individuate from the family

why body image is a focal concern

Amazing amount of growth (in a short period of time)

Yet adolescents are now aware of changing body (unlike fetuses and babies)
Increased risk of eating disorders (e.g., anorexia) and steroid abuse

eating disorders

anorexia nervosa:
- Starving oneself b/c of a compulsive fear of getting fat
Bulimia nervosa:
- Strict dieting and excessive exercise accompanied by binge eating, often followed by deliberate vomiting and purging w/ laxative

general nature of dating

Ages - start dating at 13-14 (girls) and 14-15 (boys)
Early dating - often starts in groups
For many, early dating is based on a superficial intimacy rather than a genuine closeness

general nature early sexual experiences

during ages 15-19, a majority become sexually active (males have it earlier than females)

rates of teenage STIs

inconsistent use of protection and contraception:
- Adolescents have highest STD rate of all age groups - 1 in 5 to 6 sexually active teens contracts one each year
- 614,000 teen pregnancies in 2010

gender differences in sexual scripts

Male sexual scripts:
- Expected to be interested in sex; part of being a man
- Expected to take the initiative
- Expected to focus on women's appearances
- Acceptance/Idealization of nonrelational sex

Female sexual scripts:
- Expected to be less interested in sex & more interested in love, relationships ("good girl" vs. "bad girl")
- Responsible ones and limit-setters
- Little emphasis on own desire; goal is to be desirable (sexually attractive but not as active)

gender differences in early sexual experiences

Boys' first sexual experience = scoring (achievement)

Girls' first sexual experience = often tied to feelings of love & intimacy

sexual socialization as a multidimensional process

(Definition: what & how we learn about sexuality & sexual relationships) Learning involves many issues (modesty, affection, reproductive health, etc.)

Input comes in different forms (verbal, body language, from friends, etc.)

Input received across the lifespan

Info comes from several sources (parents, siblings, school, media, etc. => 4 agents of sexual socialization)

common sources of sexual communication

Common sources of sexual communication

Parents seen as initial sexuality educators

Peers, schools, media are often cited as most important

Source of info varies by topic

nature of parental sexual communication

American parents typically give minimal direct, verbal info

Focus of communication is often on biology, physical development, sexual safety

Minimal discussion of sexual pleasure & feelings

~ 2/3 of young people have talked to their parents about sexuality; quantities vary by topic

Mothers tend to discuss issues more than fathers

Parents tend to believe they were more communicative than children perceive them to be

impact of parental communication on early sexual behavior

Expectation is that parental input will be beneficial

Reality: mixed results in the field

Some studies find that parent/child communication is associated w/ a delay of sexual intercourse and safer sex practices

A handful report the opposite association

Many others report no effects

comparison of the nature & impact of sexual communication from parents & peers (Ward lab findings)

Parents and peers differ in the nature of the sexual themes and messages conveyed:
- Parents - relational, abstinence
- Peers - sex positive, gendered, relational

Different messages have different contributions to sexual health & risk behaviors:
- Most beneficial: parental relational & parental sex positive discourses
- More troubling: parental abstinence, peer gendered discourses

media and adolescent sexuality from READING 4 (Kinsler et al., 2019)

TV shows frequently depict sex but rarely show consequences or safe practices, often normalizing risky behavior while missing opportunities for education.

media and adolescent sexuality from wards lab

Findings from Ward lab research testing impact of media sexual content on viewers:
- Both correlational and experimental data indicate that TV exposure does play a role in shaping students' attitudes about sexual relationships. Related to:
1) Holding stereotypical notions about female and male sexual roles, 2) more traditional gender role attitudes, 3) a stronger acceptance of recreational attitudes about sex (game-playing, casual), 4) both exposure levels and viewer involvement (viewing to learn, identification) are important mechanisms
- Endorsing these entered sexual scripts affects sexual health: for men, linked to higher number of sexual partners, and for women, linked to diminished sexual agency

adolescent STIs & pregnancy - rates,

727,000 teen pregnancies/year

adolescent STIs & pregnancy - consequences,

Lowers likelihood of finishing high school
- Reduces chances of marriage/increases likelihood of divorce
- Rely on welfare or unsatisfying, low-paid jobs which persists well into adulthood

lesbian, gay, bisexual youth

Three-phase sequence of coming out:
1) Feeling different - first sense appears between ages 6 and 12 in play interests more like those of the other gender; by age 10, many start to engage in sexual questioning about why heterosexual orientation does not apply to them; sexual-questioning children experience greater distress/anxiety/dissatisfaction than children who are confident of their homosexuality

2)) Confusion - awareness of same-sex physical attraction occurs between ages 11 and 12 for boys and 14 and 15 for girls; most experience an inner struggle that is intensified by lack of role models and social support; some throw themselves into activities they associate w/ heterosexuality and/or try heterosexual dating; some escape into alcohol, drugs, suicidal thinking (suicide attempts are unusually high among LGB young people)

3) Self-acceptance - generally by the end of adolescence; many eventually acknowledge their sexual orientation publicly (after telling trusted friends first); parental understanding is the strongest predictor of favorable adjustment; support strengthens the young person's view of homosexuality as a valid, meaningful, and fulfilling identity (e.g., support groups)

Advances in adolescent thinking according to Piaget

Believed to emerge from 11-15

Can now deal w/ the abstract & hypothetical

Thinking is now more enlightened, imaginative, idealistic, and rational

Reason like a scientist (find solutions to problems)

Research has shown that growth of formal reasoning abilities is slower and less complete than Piaget believed

3 specific advances

1) thinking about possibilities;

2) thinking through hypotheses - hypothetico-deductive reasoning; 3) thinking about abstract concepts

Role of brain development in adolescents’ changing thinking why we see more “what were they thinking”

moments

Improvements in rational thinking fostered by extensive maturation of prefrontal cortex (takes place gradually, not complete until mid-20s)
- Areas for planning, thinking ahead, weighing risks & rewards
- Includes synaptic pruning, myelination, increased connections to other brain parts

But, adolescents still do not fully resemble adults in their decision-making
- See risk-taking and "what were they thinking?" moments - why?
- Decision-making in the real world is the product of both logical reasoning AND psychosocial factors (e.g., impulse control, handling peer pressure) - these 2 components mature at different rates

sources of psychosocial immaturity

Gap in the maturation of brain networks

Socioemotional networks develop early - highlight emotion, rewards, sensation-seeking, and positive interactions

Cognitive control systems develop later and more gradually; responsible for:
- Impulse control
- Emotional regulation
- Delay of gratification
- Resistance to peer influence

side effects” of new thinking abilities:

See an intense preoccupation w/ the self and w/ presenting self in best light

1) Two distortions in the relation between self and others:
- Heightened self-consciousness
- Specialness -

2) Sensitive to hypocrisy - often leads to argumentativeness

3) Difficulty w/ decision-making (overwhelmed w/ possibilities)

imaginary audience

erroneous belief that one's behavior is the subject of constant public attention

personal fable

erroneous belief that one's thoughts, feelings, and experiences are totally unique ("nobody understands me")

academic achievement

Child-rearing:
- Authoritative parenting -> higher grades, mastery-oriented attributions, effort, achievement, and high educational aspirations
- Authoritarian/Permissive parenting -> lower grades
- Uninvolved parenting -> poorest grades

Peers:
- Friends w/ similar values -> reinforce desire to do well
- Integration into school peer network predicted higher grades among Caucasians and Hispanics, but not Asians and African Americans due to differing values
- Texting/Emailing poses a risk to achievement

Classroom learning:
- School environments must be responsive to adolescents' expanding powers of reasoning and their emotional/social needs (e.g., warmth, support)
- Crime/Discipline problems sometimes receive more attention than learning and teaching for low-SES kids
- Assignment to a college prep track accelerates academic progress, while vocational/gen ed track decelerates it
- In some countries, students' placement in high school is determined by a national exam, which usually establishes the young person's future possibilities

Dropping out:
- 8% drop out of high school and don't get a GED
- Higher among boys and low-SES minorities
- Much lower employment rates, more likely to remain in low-paying jobs
- More likely to have parents who are uninvolved in kid's education and engage in little monitoring of their kid's daily activities
- Often have school experiences that undermine their chances for success: grade retention (marks them as academic failures); large, impersonal secondary schools; and few opportunities for active participation
- Kids in gen ed/vocational tracks = 3x as likely to drop out

changes in self-concept

- Unify separate traits about themselves (e.g., smart and curious) into more abstract descriptors (e.g., intelligent)
- At first, their generalizations are not interconnected and are often contradictory (e.g., might mention intelligent and dork, or extrovert and introvert); these disparities result from the expansions of adolescents' social world, which creates pressure to display different selves in different relationships; make sense of this when an older adolescent
- Cognitive changes enable teens to combine traits into an organized system, and they use qualifiers (e.g., fairly or thoroughly), which reveals that stye have an increasing awareness that psychological qualities can vary from one situation to the next
- Place more emphasis on social virtues than youngsters

changes in self-esteem

- Considered the evaluative side of self-concept
- New dimensions, like close friendships, romantic appeal, and job competence, are added to self-evaluation during this time
- Self-esteem rises for most young people b/c they have become more mature, capable, personable, and attractive
- Authoritative parenting continues to predict high self-esteem, as does encouragement from teachers
- Teens who were parented other ways tend to rely only on peers to affirm their self-esteem, which is a risk factor for adjustment difficulties

definition of identity

(Identity formation: often seen as the major psychological task of adolescence)

psychosocial conflict of identity achievement vs. identity role confusion

Erikson saw process as driven by an identity crisis = a temporary period of confusion & distress experienced while experimenting w/ alternatives

Outcomes: identity achievement vs. identity role confusion (failure in identity consolidation - lack of an adult path) (we currently see it as more of an exploration than a crisis)

nature of identify formation process

Not a simple straightforward process; takes place gradually over time; involves exploration and questioning

Nature of identity complexities (hierarchical, intersectional, contextual)

1) Multiple domains of exploration - not all equally developed
2) Multiple influences - peers, parents, school activities
3) Identities are hierarchical - some identities are more important to us than others
4) Identities are intersectional - identities often overlap in meaningful ways - unique identity created at intersection (e.g., Muslim + woman = Muslim woman)
5) Identity is contextual - different environments or situations can highlight specific identities (e.g., woman in hardware store -> makes identity as woman more salient)

ethnic identity

an enduring, basic aspect of the self that includes a sense of membership in an ethnic group and the attitudes/feelings related to that membership; many consciously confront it for 1st time in adolescence

ethnic challenges

negotiating stereotypes of one's group held by mainstream culture; confronting conflicting values btw. ethnic and mainstream cultures (can resolve by having a bicultural identity, like Indian-American)

beneficial outcomes ethnic identity

1) Higher self-esteem
2) More satisfying interactions w/ family
3) Better academic outcomes & school connectedness
4) Being less affected by discrimination experiences
5) Greater levels of daily happiness and less daily anxiety

ethnic identity text box

Ethnic identity is central to the quest for identity for many members of minority groups
- Minority youths whose culture is respected in their community are more likely to incorporate ethnic values and customs into their identity
- In many immigrant families from collectivist cultures, adolescents' commitment to obeying their parents and fulfilling family obligations lessens the longer the family has been in the immigrant-receiving country
- Discrimination can interfere w/ the formation of a positive ethnic identity
- Being biracial = just as much discrimination but less positive feelings about ethnicity, fewer opportunities to forge a strong sense of belonging to either culture
- Adolescents whose family members encourage them to disprove ethnic stereotypes of low achievement/antisocial behavior typically surmount the threat that discrimination poses to a favorable ethnic identity
- Strong, secure ethnic identity is associated w/ higher self-esteem, optimism, and sense of mastery over the environment; these adolescents cope more effectively w/ stress, show higher achievement in school, and have fewer emotional/behavior problems

four stages of identity formation

Identity achievement: completed the struggle; committed to a set of self-chosen values and goals

Identity moratorium: holding pattern; not yet made commitments; midst of exploration

Identity foreclosure: pursuing goals chosen by others (e.g., parents and teachers); commitment w/o exploration

Identity diffusion: not committed to particular values & goals; not actively exploring, lack of clear direction

Kohlberg’s 3 broad levels of moral reasoning

(Kohlberg focused on reasoning and explanations for moral choices, and formulated stages of moral reasoning based on interviews w/ 10-16 yo boys)

3 broad levels:
1) Preconventional - morality is externally controlled and self-centered - focus on fear of personal punishment
2) Conventional - moral reasoning is guided by laws and social norms
3) Postconventional - moral reasoning is guided by universal ethical principles

how moral reasoning is assessed,

Assessed using a clinical interviewing procedure in which he presented a sample of 10- to 16-year-old boys w/ hypothetical moral dilemma (e.g., Heinz Dilemma about cancer & drug) and asked them what the main actor should do and why; emphasized that the way an individual reasons about the dilemma, not the content of the response (whether or not to steal), is what determines moral maturity

3 critiques of Kohlberg approach

1) Wide variability in moral reasoning across situations - not as neat & stepwise as might assume
2) Age biases? Dilemmas too mature
3) Possible gender bias? Gilligan:
- Justice perspective (individual rights, principles of justice) does not fully reflect relationships & concern for others
- Female morality - embedded in human relationships - morality of care - based on harmony, need for compassion, care (reason why women generally are in a lower stage according to Kohlberg's approach)
- No consistent evidence for sex differences in reasoning level

conclusions of Kohlberg

- Child-rearing practices (authoritative = best)
- Schooling (# of years = predictor of movement to stage 4+, higher ed introduces you to social issues that include perspective-taking opportunities, and those who indicate they are more aware of social diversity tend to be better at moral reasoning)
- Peer interaction (interactions among peers who present differing viewpoints = more moral understanding, reduces prejudice, strengthens convictions about peer exclusion being wrong)
- Culture (industrialized nations = move through stages faster and advance to higher levels)

how striving for autonomy & individuation plays out in adolescence;

(Definition of individuation: process of becoming an individual, separate emotionally from one's parents)

An increase in parent-child conflict (conflict is often most frequent in early adolescence, e.g. 11-12yo and most intense in mid-adolescence)

Conflicts tend to focus on issues of self-discipline & self-control - usually involve repeated, petty arguments about cleanliness, leisure time, chores

Represents teen's desire for independence

Domains of Conflict in Early Adolescence study: blahblahblah but results = care of room & household chores were most frequent, most intense themes were lying/cursing/making trouble, disruptive behavior, and hw/grades

Continual turmoil is rare

Most teens:
- Admire and love parents
- Rely on parents for advice
- Embrace many of parents' values (political, education, etc.)
- Feel loved by parents

20% of teens say top concern is not enough time w/ parents

Disagreements lessen in late adolescence

adolescent friendships

- Intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty are important characteristics of friendship for teens
- Self-disclosure (disclosing secrets) rises

Cliques and crowds:
- Peer groups become increasingly common and tightly knit in early adolescence
Cliques are limited to same-sex members at first (and being in a clique predicts academic and social competence for girls and is also more important to them), but my mid adolescence, mixed-sex cliques are more common

Mixed-sex cliques and crowds decline over time

Cliques

= groups of 5-7 members who are friends and usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, and values

Crowd =

when several cliques w/ similar values form a larger, more loosely organized group (e.g., jocks)

adolescent depression:

Depression is the most common psychological problem of adolescence

Characterized by pervasive feelings of sadness, irritability, low self-esteem, boredom, inability to experience pleasure

Depression increases sharply between ages 12 and 16

potential reasons for gender differences in prevalence of depression

Occurs twice as often in girls as in boys. Why?
- Biological changes of puberty? More than this
- Coping strategies? Females are more likely to ruminate
- Female gender role that emphasized passivity and dependence (lack of voice)?
- Negative body-image?

CAUSES? Linked to both biological factors (e.g., heredity and neurotransmitter levels) and to environmental factors (e.g., loss, stressful event)

adolescent suicide

Suicide rate jumps sharply at adolescence
- Boys kill themselves more than girls (3 or 4:1) even though girls have higher rates of depression; girls make more unsuccessful attempts
- Gender-role expectations may contribute (less tolerance exists for feelings of helplessness and failed efforts in males)
- Two types of people that suicide tends to occur in: 1) intelligent but solitary/withdrawn/unable to meet their own standards/those of important people in their lives, and 2) antisocial tendencies
- Belief in the personal fable leads many to believe that no one could possibly understand their intense pain