ling 115 midterm 1

What counts as a language?

• When a variety is recognized as a 'language,' it may privilege its use in various areas of life such as:

  • Government administration

  • Education

  • Law courts

  • Commerce

• Languages are often recognized officially, granting linguistic rights to speakers, while dialects usually do not have the same status or rights

Invariant System Hypothesis

• A language consists of:

  • (a) A set of words (a vocabulary)

  • (b) A set of rules of grammar and pronunciation

• These words and rules of grammar and pronunciation are used in the same way by a population of speakers.

• Problem: No two individuals make use of an identical set of rules and vocabulary when they speak.

  • Example: The American Linguistic Atlas Project (mid-20th century) found that no two speakers answered in exactly the same way.

  • We all have different, idiosyncratic ways of speaking to a certain extent, leading to each person having their own special 'idiolect.'

  • if we define English strictly by a rigid, unchanging set of grammatical rules and vocabulary, most people who speak English would not fit that definition.

Idiolect

• The unique, personalized way each individual uses language. No two individuals speak exactly the same way

Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis (MIH)

• This approach is based on mutual understanding (or lack of it).

• Situation 1:

  • If two speakers can understand each other when they speak, we can say these are two varieties of the same language.

    • British English and American English are mutually intelligible, meaning speakers from the UK and the US can understand each other despite differences in vocabulary, accent, and spelling.

• Situation 2:

  • If two speakers CANNOT understand each other when they speak, then we can say these are varieties of different languages.

    • English and French speakers cannot understand each other

Problems with MIH

• There are counter-examples to the Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis of two types:

  • Type 1: Two or more varieties of speech are mutually intelligible but are classified as different languages.

    • Examples:

      • Scandinavia: Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian: These three languages are mutually intelligible to a large degree. Speakers of these languages can generally understand each other with little effort, especially in written form. As such, MIH would categorize them as dialects of a single language, despite their classification as separate languages.

      • India: Hindi/Urdu: Linguistically similar but recognized as separate languages due to socio-political division along religious lines in India.

  • Type 2: Two or more varieties are mutually unintelligible but are classified as varieties (dialects) of the same language.

    • Examples:

      • Chinese: Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, Shanghainese, etc.

• Conclusion: The Mutual Intelligibility Hypothesis cannot account for real-world language-dialect divisions.

What factors lead to some varieties being called 'languages' and others 'dialects'?

• Socio-political factors: Political events and societal situations lead to the formal recognition of certain varieties as languages, while others are recognized as dialects.

Unit 1 - Hindi and Urdu:

• For a long time, ‘Hindi’ and ‘Urdu’ were both used for the same way of speaking in North India.

• During the 20th-century anticipation of independence from Britain, the population became politicized and polarized along religious lines.

  • ‘Hindi’ was used by Hindu parties, while ‘Urdu’ was used by the main Muslim party.

• 1947: After independence, India and Pakistan were partitioned.

• Pakistan declared Urdu its national language as a symbol of its Islamic identity.

• Now, Hindi and Urdu are both recognized as separate official languages of India.

Unit 1 - Serbian, Croatian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin:

• In 1946, after the unification of the Balkan states into the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, General Tito declared that Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, and Montenegrins all spoke a single language: 'Serbo-Croatian.'

• After the 1991 disintegration of Yugoslavia into separate states, each state declared that its population spoke its own language.

• As a result, four languages were declared in place of one.

Unit 1 - Chinese

• Many mutually unintelligible varieties of speech, such as Mandarin, Cantonese, Taiwanese, and Shanghainese, are classed as dialects of a single language: ‘Chinese.’

• The Han Chinese people feel united by a long, shared cultural history, literature, and a single writing system.

• There is also political pressure from leadership not to class different varieties of ‘Chinese’ as separate languages.

Ryuukyuan:

• Ryuukyuan is mutually unintelligible with Japanese, but the Japanese leadership emphasized that Japan is a mono-ethnic, mono-cultural, mono-lingual nation.

• As a result, Ryuukyuan was declared a dialect of Japanese.

“A language is a dialect with an army and a navy.” – Max Weinreich

• Example 1: In Spain, General Franco only recognized Castilian Spanish as a language, while other varieties such as Catalan and Galician were classified as dialects.

• Now, all regional varieties are referred to as languages.

• Example 2: In India, the post-independence national census declared many regional languages to be just dialects of Hindi for political reasons, to support the proposal that Hindi should be chosen as the national language.

Dialects

• A dialect is a variety of speech that is NOT recognized as a distinct language but is related to some officially-recognized language.

• Dialects are both similar to and different from some recognized language.

Dialect Properties:

1. A dialect is a variety which is NOT recognized as a distinct language, but is related to some officially-recognized language – dialects are both similar to and different from some language.

   • A dialect does not exist in isolation – it must be a variant form of some other form of speech that is called a language.

   • Language isolates are not dialects. 

2. Differences between dialects and (other dialects and) standard forms of language occur in:

   • accent – pronunciation

   • Vocabulary

   • Grammar

3. Dialects are commonly associated with a single geographical area/region

4. Linguists assume that the dialects of a language are all mutually intelligible, to a large degree. Non-linguists may group together varieties which are not mutually intelligible and call them dialects of a single language (e.g. the ‘dialects’ of Chinese).

How do linguists identify and describe dialects?

• The work of ‘dialect geographers’.

• These linguists map out where different forms of pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar occur.

• Mapping the variables

• Boundary lines marking the distribution of dialect variables are known as ‘isoglosses’.

Dialect continuum

• Some isoglosses may not line up fully with others, causing a more fuzzy dialect boundary.

• Sometimes, it seems that dialects blend into each other, and it is hard to identify where one dialect ends and another dialect begins.  (e.g., traveling from Vienna to Amsterdam—languages change slowly, making it hard to draw distinct boundaries).

• This phenomenon is called a ‘dialect continuum’.

Register:

• A type of speech used for a specific activity, often related to one's occupation or task.

• It is typically not used outside of that activity (e.g., sports commentators or auctioneers).

• Hudson (1998): "Your register shows what you are doing."

Style

• Refers to variations in how an individual speaks depending on the social context or situation.

• People can switch between different styles of speech depending on the formality or audience.

Three kinds of non-regional dialect

1. Religious dialects

• People with different religions speak the same language in different ways.

• 20thC Baghdad: Muslim, Christian and Jewish dialects of Iraqi Arabic

2. Social dialects

• People from different social groups speak the same language in different ways.

• India: Hindu caste groups speaking Gujarati differently

3. Ethnic dialects

• early Italian American immigrants, African American Vernacular English Styles and Registers

• All speakers use their language in different ways sometimes – formal and informal styles of speaking.

• Some individuals change their speech to a special ‘register’.

• A type of speech used in a specific activity/job.

• Livestock, commodities auctioneers

• Sports commentators (horse-racing)

Factors influencing shifts in style

• The participants. Who is speaking, and who are they talking to?

• The setting. Where is the conversation taking place?

• The topic. What is being talked about?

• The function of speech. Why are people talking?

How relations between participants affects style

• Solidarity. How close we are to other people we are speaking to.

• More informal language to our friends/family, more formal and ‘distant’ styles with people we don’t know well.

• Power. May cause special styles of language – talking with a company boss, a priest, a member of royalty.

• Formality. refers to how the social setting, whether physical (e.g., religious vs. market) or metaphorical (e.g., different forms for writing vs. speech, as seen in Arabic and historically in China, Japan, and Korea), influences language or style choice.

Referential and affective communication

• Language is regularly used to convey information to others – referential communication.

• News programs, documentaries, scientific discussion and weather reports are all very high in their referential content.

• Another frequent use of language is for affective purposes – to initiate, maintain, and strengthen our social relations.

• Greetings and small talk are used for affective purposes and convey little or no information. They are often culture-specific and sound odd when ‘translated’ into other language settings.

[1] When Macaulay says that “languages and dialects have both a unifying function and a separatist function,” what does he mean?

Macaulay means that languages and dialects serve to both unite groups of people and separate them from others. A language can create a shared identity within a group, while differences in language or dialect can highlight distinctions between groups, fostering a sense of separation.

[2] What three reasons does Macaulay give to back up his belief that Standard English is not superior to other forms?

(1) Languages are neither logical nor illogical; the logic lies with the users, not the language.

(2) Regularity: Some dialects, such as those lacking third-person singular inflections (She run-s.He watch-es), are more regular than Standard English.

(3) Beauty: There is no objective measure for the beauty of a language.

[3] Macaulay describes patterns of speech in New York City (the pronunciation of words like think as either ‘think’ or ‘tink’) and Glasgow (the pronunciation of words with a ‘t’ as either ‘t’ or a ‘glottal stop’). In the studies described by Macaulay, how does social class relate to the occurrence of the non-standard pronunciations?

In New York City, the use of [t] instead of [th] (e.g., "tink" for "think") is more common among the lower social classes.

In Glasgow, the use of a glottal stop instead of [t] (e.g., "bo'le" for "bottle") increases as you go down the social class ladder, with manual workers using it more frequently than those in professional or managerial occupations.

Official Languages

• Official Languages (OLs) are specified for:

  • (a) Area of life/activity: For example, teaching in schools, use in government administration, etc.

  • (b) Geographical area: This can be either across all of a country or a specific part, such as a state, province, or region.

National Languages

• National Languages (NLs) are symbolic and intended to represent the nation and its projected national identity.

  • NLs unify populations with a common national spirit.

OLs vs NLs

• NLs are symbolic and foster national unity.

• OLs are utilitarian and used for daily practical matters, such as government and education.

• Holmes (1997):

  • “A national language is the language of a political, cultural, and social unit. It is generally developed and used as a symbol of national unity. Its functions are to identify the nation and unite the people of a nation.

  • An official language, by contrast, is simply a language that may be used for government business. Its function is primarily utilitarian rather than symbolic. It is possible, of course, for one language to serve both functions.”

Examples of countries and their OLs + NLs

Paraguay - Spanish (OL) and Guarani (NL)

Tanzania - Swahili and English (OL) and Swahili (NL)

Singapore - Malay, Mandarin, Tamil, English (OL) and Malay (NL)

Language Planning (LP)

Two types of LP, and four steps in creating new NLs/OLs:

1. Status Planning

2. Corpus Planning

3. Promotion of new NLs/OLs

4. Winning Acceptance

1. Status Planning (Step 1):

• This involves decisions about the official status and function of a language within a country or region

• Giving special roles to certain languages or varieties, e.g., selecting new NLs and OLs.

2. Corpus Planning (Step 2):

• refers to activities which describe the norms of use of a variety and then often attempt to establish a standard form of the language.

• Further developing the languages selected in Step 1:

  • a. Develop vocabulary for use in all areas of life.

  • b. Create dictionaries.

  • c. Decide which pronunciations are standard.

  • d. Describe the grammatical rules of the language.

  • e. Decide how the language should be written (orthography).

    • Decisions on which script to use for a language —‘graphization’—should consider which type of writing can best represent the special linguistic features of the language

1. Promotion of new NLs/OLs (Step 3):

• Spread knowledge of the new NLs/OLs.

  • Public education

  • Radio and tv

  • Govt incentives (jobs dependent on language proficiency)

1. Winning Acceptance (Step 4):

• Encourage people to use and be proud of, or have respect for, the new NL/OL.

• Language must be willingly accepted by those who are intended to speak it. 

Example of LP: Modern Japanese

• Before modern times, there was no common form of Japanese.

• In 1916, the government selected the Tokyo variety (Yamanote area) as the model (Step 1).

• This variety was then standardized (Step 2).

• It was spread through mass education and media (Step 3).

• Widespread acceptance for the new NL was won (Step 4).

Multiple National Languages (NLs):

• Sometimes identifying a single language as an NL is difficult, so different solutions are tried.

• Advantage: Avoids inter-ethnic or regional discontent/conflict due to favoring a single NL.

• Disadvantage: Weakens the potential unifying force of having a single NL.

Multiple Official Languages (OLs):

• Some states decide to establish and support more than one OL.

• Advantage: All segments of the population have equal linguistic advantages.

• Disadvantage: This policy can be very expensive since all official materials must be produced in multiple languages.

3. No National Language (NL), only an Official Language (OL):

• The OL is often not an indigenous language but a major world language (e.g., English, French).

• Advantages:

  • (a) The language is ethnically neutral.

  • (b) The OL is already standardized and 'ready-to-go.'

• Disadvantages:

  • (a) There is no stimulation of national unity through a NL.

  • (b) The OL may have negative colonial associations.

(c) Learning a non-indigenous language can be difficult.

National-Official Language

• When a single language serves both NL and OL functions, it is called a national-official language.

• Examples: Japanese, Polish, French (in France).

Unit 2 Case Study: Pakistan (and Bangladesh):

• 1947: Pakistan was formed after independence from Britain.

  • West Pakistan: 25 million people, very mixed population, politically more powerful.

  • East Pakistan (now Bangladesh): 44 million people, mostly Bengali speakers.

• West Pakistan declared Urdu as the NL.

• People in East Pakistan wanted Bengali as the NL.

  • Proposal for Bengali as a third OL, alongside Urdu and English, was rejected.

• The rejection led to agitation, a new language movement, independence movements, and eventually civil war.

• In 1971, East Pakistan became independent Bangladesh.

Unit 2 Case Study: Sri Lanka

• At independence in 1948:

  • 75% of the population spoke Sinhala.

  • 25% of the population spoke Tamil.

  • Tamil speakers got better jobs due to their better knowledge of English

• In 1956, the first post-independence elections took place.

  • The Freedom Party leader pledged to make Sinhala the unique OL of Sri Lanka immediately.

  • Freedom Party won, and Sinhala became the unique OL.

  • Tamil books and films from India were banned.

  • This led to riots, civil war, and terrorism, which is still unresolved.

Unit 2 Case Study: Indonesia

• 1949: Independence from Dutch rule.

  • A new OL was needed:

    • Not Dutch.

    • Not Javanese.

    • Malay was chosen, developed as Indonesian. Four reasons:

      1. Ethnically neutral, mostly used as an L2 lingua franca.

      2. Already used in some schools and popular novels.

      3. An indigenous language of Indonesia.

      4. Used by the independence movement, giving it prestige.

  • It was standardized, and its vocabulary was developed.

  • Now used in:

    • (a) Formal domains of communication.

    • (b) Inter-group communication.

  • Other languages were not repressed but used locally, leading to stable bilingualism across much of Indonesia.

NLs Should Fulfill Four Special Functions:

1. Unifying: The NL should unify the nation and offer advantages to its speakers that other languages do not.

2. Separatist: It should distinguish its speakers from those of other nations.

3. Prestige: It should be seen as a 'real language' with high status.

4. Frame-of-reference: It should provide a model of correctness and be well-standardized.

Goals and Challenges of Multilingual OL policies

Goals of Multilingual OL Policies:

• Equality: Ensure all linguistic groups have equal access to resources and services.

• National unity: Promote a shared identity by respecting linguistic diversity.

• Cultural preservation: Protect minority languages and cultures.

• Improved communication: Facilitate interactions between different language groups.

Challenges of Multilingual OL Policies:

• High costs: Expensive to provide services in multiple languages.

• Inequality: Some languages may dominate in usage.

• Resistance: Majority language speakers may oppose the policy.

• Administrative complexity: Managing multiple languages requires constant adjustments.

Unit 2 Case Study: Singapore

• 1958: Self-government.

• Challenge: Unite a very mixed population:

  • 75% Chinese, 17% Malay, 6% South Asian, 2% other.

• OLs: Mandarin, Malay, Tamil, English.

• NL: Malay.

• Bilingual education for everyone.

• Linguistic pluralism and multiculturalism are key aspects of Singapore's policy.

• Government policy of multilingualism has contributed to social stability in a mixed population.

Regional Multilingualism

• India: Regional languages became official in "linguistic states" (1956-1966), aiding local governance and education, and reducing linguistic tensions.

• Indonesia: The government encouraged local languages alongside Indonesian, promoting regional identity without undermining national unity.

• China: The state supports pluralistic integrity, allowing local languages to coexist with Mandarin to maintain both ethnic and national identity.

• No Threat to Unity: Recognition of local languages generally doesn't lead to independence movements if citizens are treated equitably (e.g., Khmer in Thailand).

• Oppression Consequences: Suppressing local languages and cultures can provoke unrest and threaten national unity.

Corpus Planning: Expansion of Vocabulary and Its Symbolic Effects

1. Language-internal sourcing of new words:

   • Create new words by reusing old words or parts of words already present in the language:

     • (a) Give a new meaning to an old word no longer in use.

       • Example: Hausa: jakaadaa (old meaning: 'important palace messenger') → new meaning: 'ambassador.'

     • (b) Promote the use of regional dialect words.

     • (c) Make new combinations of existing words to create new meanings (compounds).

       • Example: English: greenhouse, wetsuit, hard drive.

2. Language-external sourcing of new words:

   • Borrow words and their meanings from other languages.

The Symbolic Nature of New Words

• Countries focused on developing, maintaining, and protecting a national identity often prefer internal sources for new words.

• Countries more open to accepting outside cultural influences may borrow from other languages and already have a strong national identity.

  • Example: Chinese favors internal sources for new words, while Modern Japanese often borrows words from other languages.

Language Purification and Vocabulary Changes

• The goal is to purge foreign words and replace them with native or internally sourced ones to make the national language 'pure' again.

• Example: In North Korea during the 1960s, thousands of borrowed words were replaced, leading to the North Korean dialect becoming almost unintelligible to South Koreans by the 1970s.

• A good example of a nation with a heavy protectionist policy toward its language is France. In France it has at times been the law that new words be made from genuine French sources, and those who worked in government offices and schools risked having to pay fines if they did not follow directives on the use of newly coined words. 

  • The French Academy, which is responsible for many aspects of the direction of the French language, is strongly against the use of English-borrowed words, such as le weekend, le sandwich, le drugstore, and le computer, and attempts to impose the use of French equivalents

Azerbaijan - issues relating to graphization and orthography

• Soviet Union imposed Latin script in Azerbaijan to weaken Islamic ties, later switching to Cyrillic to block connections with Turkey.

• After independence in 1991, Azerbaijan adopted Latin script to emphasize its Turkic identity and strengthen ties with other Turkic-speaking nations.

• The choice of script reflects political and cultural connections and national identity.

Linguistic Protectionism

• Policy dictating that new words should only come from internal language resources.

  • Example: French Academy aimed to block English loanwords from replacing French words.

  • Government workers were fined for using English loanwords.

  • North Korea eliminated foreign words to create a purer national language.

graphization

• Definition: Graphization refers to the process of developing a writing system or script for a language that may not have had one previously. This includes the standardization of symbols or letters to represent the sounds and words of a spoken language.

• Example: The development of the Latin alphabet for languages that originally didn’t have a writing system, like many indigenous languages.

orthography

• Definition: Orthography is the conventional spelling system of a language. It involves the rules and standards for writing a language, including how letters represent sounds, how words are formed, and how punctuation is used.

• Example: The standardized spelling and writing conventions of English (e.g., rules for silent letters, capitalization, and punctuation)

Linguistic Assimilation and Suppression of Languages

1. Taiwan

2. Ainu in Japan

Example: Taiwan

• 1895-1945: Ruled by Japan.

• Pressure to speak Japanese.

• Suppression of Chinese and other Taiwanese languages.

• Goal: Stimulate new loyalty to Japan.

• Result: Japanese rule led to the formation of a unified anti-Japanese identity among Taiwanese groups, who used Japanese to communicate and form an opposition.

Example: The Ainu in Japan

• An ethnic group in Hokkaido and northern islands of Japan.

• The differences between the Ainu and the Japanese marked the northern border of Japan.

• Initially, the Ainu were forbidden to speak Japanese or wear Japanese clothing (active dissimilation).

• In the late 18th century, Japan reversed its policy and encouraged the Ainu to assimilate by adopting Japanese language and customs.

Different OL/NL Policies for Different Populations

1. Single national-official language:

   • Common in very homogeneous populations:

     • Examples: Japan, Italy, Somalia, Iceland, Vietnam, Thailand.

2. Single NL + one (or more) OL:

   • Chosen when the NL represents national identity but is not developed enough for OL functions.

     • Examples: Paraguay, Malaysia (at independence).

3. Only an OL, no NL:

   • Used when creating a unified national identity through an NL is too difficult in mixed populations. There are two variants:

     • (a) The OL is an indigenous language (e.g., Indonesian).

     • (b) The OL is a non-indigenous language (e.g., English or French in ex-colonies).

1] From what is described in the paper, are all of South Africa’s 11 official languages enjoying equal support and equal ‘success’ (i.e. being used in the same way as the other official languages)? One official language seems to be used more frequently than the other official languages – which one, and why is it more successful?

• No, not all 11 official languages receive equal support or usage.

• English is used more frequently than other languages, particularly in parliament, higher education, local government, and institutions like the police and the courts.

• The dominance of English is attributed to its use as the lingua franca by the African National Congress (ANC) during the anti-apartheid movement, which brought together leaders and activists from various racial groups. The ANC had even considered making English the sole official language

[2] How did Afrikaans arise as a language? What feelings do people in South Africa have toward Afrikaans, and why?

• Afrikaans developed from Dutch during the time of European settlement in South Africa. It evolved as a simplified form of Dutch.

• After the British took control of the Boer republics, they attempted to replace Dutch with English in schools and government. In response, Afrikaners resisted this Anglicization and began emphasizing Afrikaans as a symbol of their distinct cultural identity and Afrikaner nationalism. 

• Feelings toward Afrikaans are mixed: for the Afrikaners, it represents Afrikaner identity, while for the Black majority, it is associated with the oppression of apartheid and is generally viewed negatively due to its role in segregating education and society

[3] During the period of Apartheid, what was the government’s language policy in education, and why did people protest against this policy?

• In the 1950s, the apartheid government ruled that both English and Afrikaans be introduced as subjects from the first year of schooling, even though children were not familiar with either language.

• Despite recommendations to make only one language (either English or Afrikaans) compulsory, the government insisted on both due to fears that English alone would dominate. Both languages were also used as mediums of instruction in secondary schools .

• Black students were forced to learn in Afrikaans, which was perceived as the language of the oppressors.

[4] During the period of Apartheid, the government promoted the use of nine African languages. From your reading of the paper, what seems to have been the motivation for this government policy?

• The nine African languages were promoted as a political compromise during the negotiations for the 1994 elections.

• Keeping only English and Afrikaans as official languages would have maintained existing linguistic power imbalances.

• To ensure linguistic pluralism and empower the Black majority, the nine African languages were given co-official status alongside English and Afrikaans.

• These languages were already recognized in the homeland system and spoken by 99% of the Black population.

Elite Closure. What does this term refer to?

• Elite closure is a type of social mobilization strategy by which those persons in power establish or maintain their powers and privileges via linguistic choices.

• Language is used as a tool to exclude others from key positions of influence. 

• For example, in South Africa, English and Afrikaans became dominant languages during the apartheid and post-apartheid periods, marginalizing indigenous African languages and limiting the social mobility of people who did not speak these languages fluently

common types of minority group:

1. Immigrant minorities

2. Indigenous minorities

3. A third scenario: ‘Border-change minorities’

   • The borders of two states change as the result of international conflict.

   • One portion of the territory of LG2 is taken by LG1.

The Three-Generation Pattern of Language Shift and Loss (Among Immigrant Groups)

Common language shifts from Heritage Language (HL) to the Local Majority Language (LML) across three generations.

1st Generation (G1): Immigrant parents typically speak the Heritage Language (HL) fluently.

• They may struggle with the Local Majority Language (LML) but use the HL at home.

2nd Generation (G2): Children of immigrants grow up bilingual.

• They speak the LML (English) outside the home, in school, and at work.

• Use of the HL is often limited to communication with parents or within the home.

3rd Generation (G3): Grandchildren of immigrants often lose proficiency in the HL.

• They primarily speak the LML and may understand but not speak the HL.

What Causes Speakers Not to Learn Their HLs?

1. Political factors

2. Social pressures

3. Economic factors

4. Social status

5. Inter-marriage

6. The influence of school

7. Children’s lack of motivation to learn/use the HL

Factors Helping the Transmission and Maintenance of HLs

1. The size and concentration of minority/HL groups

2. The arrival of new, monolingual immigrants

3. Media availability in the HL – TV, radio, newspapers in Spanish, Korean, Chinese, etc.

4. Isolated communities

5. Visits to the home country

6. Parents committed to transmitting HLs to their children

   • Why do parents think HLs are important?
     (a) Children should learn about their family’s cultural identity and ethnic traditions.
     (b) HLs have potential value for employment → economic reasons
     (c) Family cohesion.

7. Opportunities to learn the HL in school

The Generation 4 Effect

Increasing prosperity/economic stability → desire to reconnect with heritage background.

Capacity-Opportunity-Desire (COD)

A framework for assessing HL maintenance prospects.

• Capacity = the abilities that individuals develop in the HL.

• Opportunity = chances to use the HL outside the home in daily life (e.g., restaurants, stores).

• Desire = eagerness to use the HL (positive attitudes toward the HL).

• All C-O-D are necessary for successful transmission and maintenance of HLs.

COD and Pahari in the UK

75% of people from Pakistan living in the UK come from the Mirpur area (600,000 people).
Pahari is the second largest language spoken in the UK after English.

Why is Pahari stable and well-maintained?

• Capacity: Pahari is well-learned; mothers teach it to their children.

• Opportunity: Speakers use Pahari in the local area and on regular trips to Pakistan.

• Desire: Positive attitudes toward Pahari; even younger people use it with each other.

COD and Hindi in the USA

South Asians are the fastest-growing minority group in the USA, second after Mexican-Americans.
1960: 12,000 South Asians → Now: 2,000,000+
Hindi-HL group: 500,000 (heavily concentrated in CA and four other states).

Why is transmission of Hindi to G2 (and G3) poor?

• Capacity: Parents often don’t help children learn Hindi.

• Opportunity: Hindi is not widely used in South Asian communities (English is the lingua franca).

• Desire: Positive attitudes to Hindi, but without sufficient Capacity and Opportunity, Hindi is not being passed on well.

lingua franca

a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose native languages are different.

Language Endangerment and Language Death

Many linguists suggest that if a language has 20,000 speakers or fewer and is in ongoing decline, it should be classified as endangered.

Moribund languages

• If a language is not well transmitted to younger generations, it is moribund.

• Languages worldwide are becoming moribund.

  • In North America, 80% of the Native American languages are now moribund, as young children switch into using English and sometimes French, and parents no longer actively engage in using their ancestral languages in the home with their children

• A language may have many older speakers but few younger/new speakers.

Unit 3 facts: large and small languages

• There are 6,000-7,000 languages in the world, but most of the world’s 7 billion people speak a very small number of languages as their L1.

• 8 languages have 100+ million L1 speakers, accounting for 3 billion people.

• The 20 largest languages in the world are spoken by 3.7 billion people.

• 96% of the world’s languages are spoken by only 4% of the population.

• If a language with 20,000 or fewer speakers is classified as endangered, then:

  • 2/3 of the world’s languages are currently endangered and may disappear during the 21st century.

Reasons to Be Concerned About the Loss of the World’s Languages

1. The language of every group is an expression of its cultural identity; HLs are important for ethno-linguistic minorities.

2. Language death leads to a massive loss of global cultural diversity, which may be beneficial for all.

3. Different languages provide unique knowledge about the physical world (e.g., plant life, medicines).

Causes of Language Endangerment

• Economic factors

• Social factors

• The growth of larger languages

• Globalization

• Urbanization

• Invasion and colonization

• Physical causes: Disease, crop failure, famine, earthquakes, tsunamis.

Ecuador example of language endangerment - economic factors + personal confidence

• Once stigmatized as the "language of animals," Quechua is now viewed positively by the Saraguros in Lagunas. Economic prosperity and fluency in Spanish have allowed them to embrace Quechua as a symbol of ethnic pride, associating it with progressive political views and higher education.

• Quechua Revival in Lagunas: The younger, educated generation, often learning Quechua through university, is leading efforts to revive the language and integrate it into daily life.

• Contrasting Situation in Tambopamba: Unlike Lagunas, Tambopamba remains economically disadvantaged, and Quechua is still seen as a low-status, rural language. Spanish is preferred for socioeconomic advancement, and there is no significant movement to revive Quechua.

• Conclusion: Language revival thrives when communities have economic security and confidence in the dominant language.

Official discouragement or suppression of minority languages - Native American languages

The US governmental initiative during the 19th and early 20th centuries to replace knowledge of Native American languages with English through the forced placement of young Native Americans in boarding schools where only English was allowed to be spoken, with punishments meted out for any use of Native American languages.

Unit 3 example - loss of Oroqen language

• Originally nomads with no fixed home.

• From the 1950s onward, the Chinese government improved living conditions for minority groups (health care, education, affirmative action).

• However, more Han Chinese settled in the area and married Oroqen, causing a language shift and loss of Oroqen.

• Bilingualism is solution to maintaining HL/cultural tradition with socioeconomic progress
  

Language Documentation

• The goal is to establish good descriptions and records of endangered languages (ELs) before they disappear.

• Linguists trained in analyzing unfamiliar languages create dictionaries and grammatical descriptions of ELs.

Language Revitalization

Main activities include teaching and spreading new knowledge of ELs among HL communities.
Common methods:

• EL taught as a subject

• Bilingual education

• Summer language camps

• Pre-school ‘language nests’

• Master-apprentice language-learning programs

3 Factors that help language revitalization:

• (a) the existence of records of a language (language documentation)

  • Chulym 

• (b) the presence of centers which can serve as hubs for revitalization efforts

  • The Myaamia Center at Miami University has been crucial for the Miami tribe's language revitalization. 

  • Once without speakers, Miami is now used as a second language by tribal members, with children being raised to speak it.

  • Tribal publications, meetings, prayers, and online resources now incorporate Miami, and its use is expected to grow as revitalization efforts continue.

• (c) governmental recognition of an endangered language as having a certain official status

  • The revival of Cornish gained momentum after the UK government recognized it as a minority language under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2003. This official status increased speakers' pride and psychological encouragement, boosting efforts to revitalize the language. As noted by Crystal (2000), such recognition can elevate a language's prestige and provide crucial support for endangered language communities.

Reviving "Extinct" or "Dormant" Languages: Hebrew

• Hebrew was not used as a regular spoken language for 2,000 years (only for religious purposes).

• In the early 20th century, it was revived in Israel by language activists like Ben Yehuda.

• New words were created, schools began teaching Hebrew, and a new literature emerged.

• Hebrew is now used in all domains of everyday life.

Reviving "Extinct" or "Dormant" Languages: Miami

By the 1980s, there were no native speakers of Miami (Myaamia) left.
Now revived as an L2 in many interactions.
Success due to:

• (a) A detailed description of Miami in a PhD dissertation.

• (b) Establishment of a revitalization center at Miami University, Ohio.

Reviving "Extinct" or "Dormant" Languages: Maori

Widely spoken before British colonization.
In 1867, English became the enforced school language; using Maori resulted in punishment.
Post-WWII urbanization led to pressure on Maori speakers to use English for jobs.

By 1960 only one Maori child in four could speak Maori and the language was expected to die out. Expected to die out by the 1980s, but a revival movement began.

• Language nests (pre-school centers) where older speakers interact with children were established, with 800 centers by the 1990s.

• Maori was spread to high schools and declared an OL of New Zealand in 1987.

• The government provided financial support for Maori TV/radio and set up a Maori Language Commission.

Reviving "Extinct" or "Dormant" Languages: Hawaiian

Hawaiian was widely spoken until the end of the 19th century, when the Hawaiian monarchy was overthrown by the US, invited by the wealthy Anglo-American community in Hawaii who owned most of the plantations there. Hawaii subsequently became a part of the USA and Hawaiian language was forbidden from schools, and pressure was applied on Hawaiians to stop using their language even in the home, and switch to English. However, the population didn’t learn English well, because the English teachers were not well-trained, and what emerged was a mixture of English with Hawaiian and Chinese and Japanese: Hawaiian Creole English, referred to colloquially as ‘pidgin’. This became widespread and replaced the speaking of Hawaiian until the 1970s, when new interest in Hawaiian culture led to a major revival of the language.

• Hawaiian was promoted in group activities (sports, clubs, meetings).

• In 1978, Hawaiian was declared an OL of Hawaii.

• The NZ language nest model was adopted in Hawaii.

• In 1986, the official ban on Hawaiian in primary and secondary schools was lifted.

• Hawaiian was reintroduced to schools and now has to be taught in some form in all schools.

• It is the most successful case of revitalization in the US, showing what a dedicated community can achieve. Currently it is even possible to do PhD studies in Hawaiian, and some Hawaiian is taught in all schools.

why language documentation and revitalization is valuable

It creates positive new attitudes, pride and enthusiasm among EL communities and a foundation for more extensive revitalization work.

Who is Generation 1.5, and what kinds of special challenges does this group experience? 

• Generation 1.5 refers to individuals who immigrated to the U.S. at a young age, typically between 8-12 years old, and attended school in both their home country and the U.S.

• This group is "caught between two worlds," meaning they are neither fully part of the first-generation immigrant experience nor the second generation born in the U.S. They maintain strong ties to both their heritage and the new culture.

Special challenges include:

• Bilingualism issues: While they may appear fluent in English, they often have slight imperfections in idioms or pronunciation and may struggle with formal aspects of their heritage language.

• Cultural identity: They often feel disconnected from both their native culture and American culture, leading to struggles with identity. They may feel like foreigners in both environments.

• Academic challenges: They face unique difficulties in school as they navigate between the expectations of the U.S. educational system and their own cultural background​

1. What is language rejection and why does it occur among young heritage language speakers?

Language rejection occurs when children of immigrants begin to distance themselves from their heritage language. This typically happens because of peer pressure and teasing at school, where they feel different and are often ridiculed for their accent or language. As a result, they feel ashamed of their heritage language and try to suppress it​

2. What is first-language attrition and who typically suffers first-language attrition?

First-language attrition refers to the loss of fluency or ability in a person's native language over time. This typically happens to children of immigrants who, after learning their new country’s language and integrating into this new society, gradually lose their ability to speak, read, or write in their heritage language

3. What is meant by the term passive knowledge?

Passive knowledge refers to when a person can understand a language to a certain extent but cannot speak or write it fluently. Many children of immigrants can understand their parents’ heritage language but struggle to speak it​

4. What is Konglish?

Konglish is a mix of Korean and English, similar to how some other immigrant groups blend their native language with English. It is an informal, hybrid language used among Korean-American families​

5. What problems are created by first-language attrition?

First-language attrition creates difficulties in communicating with older generations, such as grandparents, and causes a loss of connection with the heritage culture. It can also lead to embarrassment and frustration when trying to use the native language in social or family contexts​

6. In what way is there poor communication between generations (of heritage language speakers), and what criticisms do young heritage language speakers sometimes suffer:

(a) from other people who are not heritage language speakers, and

(b) from older heritage language speakers?

• Poor communication arises when children of immigrants lose fluency in their heritage language, making it hard to converse with older family members who don't speak English well.

• (a) From non-heritage speakers: They may face mockery or ridicule for their accent or inability to speak English fluently, making them feel ashamed of their heritage.

• (b) From older heritage speakers: They are often criticized by older generations for not speaking their native language well, which may be seen as a sign of losing cultural identity​

Diglossia

•  Switching between two different varieties of language in different areas of life.

  • H: Used in formal settings (e.g., religious activities, political speeches, academic writing).

  • L: Used in informal settings (e.g., family conversations, TV soap operas).

Code-switching

• Switching between two (or more) different languages in a single conversation.

Properties of Diglossia

4 Distinguishing Properties (core)

1. Two distinct varieties of the same language are used by speakers in a population.

2. H and L varieties each have different functions – used in different areas of life.

3. H and L are learned at different times and in different environments.

4. The H variety is never used in informal conversation.

Two Additional Properties (non-core)

5. The H variety (but not L) may often be standardized.

6. Literature/writing is predominantly in H.

• L is not normally used for writing – only in cartoons, advertisements on billboards, and now by younger people on Facebook, Twitter, and in text messages.

Countries where diglossia occurs

Two examples of countries where diglossia occurs are: (a) Switzerland, where Standard German is the H variety, and Swiss German is the L variety, and (b) Haiti, where French is the H variety, and Haitian Creole is the L variety.

Domains of H/L Use

• Religious activities are carried out in H, not L.

• Political discussion and government administration make use of H.

• Newspapers and technical/academic writing are regularly in H, not L.

• News programs are broadcast in H.

• TV soap operas are in L.

• L is always used with family and friends.

Extended Diglossia

• Diglossia technically involves two varieties of the same language patterning in H and L ways.

• Extended diglossia = two distinct languages patterning in the typical H and L ways.

Triglossia

• Triglossia is a situation where there are three varieties/languages in H/L relations to each other.

  • Tanzania

    • H varieties: English and Swahili

    • L variety: regional tribal languages

Unit 4: Arabic

• Key historical moment:

  • 7th century: The Koran is written, fixing the way Arabic is written to the present day.

  • Classical Arabic: The form of Arabic that was written in the Qur’an

  • As Arabic is carried to different areas, it comes into contact with speakers of other languages.

  • The spoken form of Arabic changes under the influence of local languages.

  • The written form stays the same.

Differences between Classical Arabic and modern colloquial forms of Arabic 

• (a) Pronunciation: regional forms of Arabic may make regular use of certain different sounds. 

• (b) Grammar: colloquial forms of Arabic have simplified aspects of the grammar of Classical Arabic (for example, eliminating subject/object/possessor markings on nouns). 

• (c) Words: a major difference between Classical Arabic and colloquial varieties is in the lexicon—many words in colloquial varieties are different from those in Classical Arabic.