Cytology Mega Set

Cell Theory

States that all cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cytokinesis

The division of cytoplasm during cell division.

Mitosis

A type of cell division that produces genetically identical daughter cells.

Meiosis

A type of cell division that produces genetically different daughter cells.

Oogenesis

The process of egg production in females, where cytoplasmic division is unequal.

Somatic Cells

Body cells that divide via mitosis.

Haploid

A cell having half the number of chromosomes (n).

Diploid

A cell having two sets of chromosomes (2n).

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that contains the genetic material in eukaryotic cells.

Chromatid

Each strand of a double-stranded chromosome, connected by a centromere.

Centromere

The constricted region of a chromosome that holds sister chromatids together.

Histone

Proteins around which DNA is coiled to form nucleosomes.

Nucleosome

A structural unit of chromatin consisting of DNA wound around a core of histone proteins.

Interphase

The phase of the cell cycle in which DNA is replicated prior to mitosis or meiosis.

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase

The four phases of mitosis.

Reduction Division

The process in meiosis that results in daughter cells having half the number of chromosomes.

Hair Follicles

Structures in the skin that produce hair, playing a role in thermoregulation and protection. They contain specialized cells for growth and maintenance of hair.

Bone Marrow

Spongy tissue found in the center of bones, responsible for producing blood cells and storing fat.

Adult Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells found in various tissues of the body (brain, bone marrow, liver) that have the ability to develop into different cell types, contributing to tissue repair and regeneration.

Morphogen

Signaling molecules that dictate the patterns of development in embryos.

Potency

The potential of a stem cell to differentiate into different cell types.

Totipotent

Stem cells that can develop into any cell type, including placental cells.

Pluripotent

Stem cells that can become any cell type but cannot form placental cells.

Multipotent

Stem cells that can become more than one cell type but are limited compared to pluripotent cells.

Stem Cell Niche

The specific microenvironment within a tissue that supports stem cell maintenance and function.

Hemopoiesis

The process of blood cell formation, primarily occurring in bone marrow.

Self-Renewal

The ability of stem cells to divide and produce more stem cells.

Differentiation

The process by which a cell changes from one cell type to another, typically to a more specialized type.

Epidermis

The outermost layer of skin, which includes different cell types contributing to skin function.

Adipose Tissue

Loose connective tissue that stores fat and helps insulate the body.

Surface Area to Volume Ratio

A measurement that describes how much surface area an object has relative to its volume, influencing cellular functions.

Zygote

The fertilized egg formed from the union of sperm and egg cells, which eventually develops into an embryo.

Embryonic Stem Cells

Undifferentiated cells derived from the early embryo, capable of developing into any cell type in the body.

Cell Differentiation

The process by which general cells develop into specific types to perform specialized functions.

Sex Cell

Gametes involved in sexual reproduction, including sperm and egg cells.

Muscle Cell

Specialized cells that contract to produce movement and force.

Fat Cell

Specialized cells that store energy as triglycerides and play a vital role in the body's endocrine system, also called Adipocytes.

Stem Cell

Undifferentiated cells capable of giving rise to various cell types.

Epithelial Cell

Cells that line and cover the internal and external surfaces of the body, such as the skin, organs, and glands.

Nervous Cell

Neurons that transmit signals throughout the body.

Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)

Cells responsible for transporting respiratory gases, mainly oxygen.

Kidney Nephron

The functional unit of the kidney that maintains water balance and filters waste.

Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)

The longest section of the nephron, adapted for absorption with microvilli.

Type I Pneumocytes

Epithelial cells in alveoli involved in gas exchange, characterized by their thin, flat structure.

Type II Pneumocytes

Cuboidal epithelial cells in alveoli that secrete surfactant, preventing collapse.

Cardiac Muscle Cells

Cells unique to the heart that contract rhythmically.

Intercalated Discs

Specialized connections between cardiac muscle cells allowing synchronized contraction.

Skeletal Muscle

Muscle attached to bones that facilitates movement.

Gametes

Reproductive cells (sperm and egg) that carry half the genetic information.

Flagellum

A tail-like structure that provides motility to sperm cells.

Acrosome

A cap-like structure at the head of sperm containing enzymes to penetrate the egg.

Zona Pellucida

A protective jelly coat surrounding the egg that prevents multiple sperm from fertilizing.

Alveoli

Microscopic air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

Sarcomeres

The functional units of a muscle fiber, composed of actin and myosin filaments, responsible for muscle contraction.

Sarcolemma

The thin plasma membrane surrounding a muscle cell that plays a crucial role in muscle contraction and action potential propagation.

Macrophages (dust cells)

Large white blood cells that engulf and digest cellular debris, pathogens, and foreign substances in the body.

Epithelium

A tissue composed of closely packed cells that lines surfaces and cavities throughout the body, serving as a barrier and facilitating absorption, secretion, and sensation.

Striated Muscle Fibers

Long, cylindrical cells with a striped appearance and are found in skeletal muscles.

Cell Respiration

The process in which a protein has hydrogen removed, split into electrons and proteins, and used to create ATP.

Glycolysis

The first stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the cytoplasm and produces pyruvate.

Pyruvate

The molecule produced in glycolysis that enters the mitochondria through transport proteins.

Cristae

The inner membrane of the mitochondria, which increases surface area for ATP synthase and the electron transport chain.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

The stage in respiration where electrons pass down a series of proteins in the inner membrane.

Mitochondrial Matrix

The location in the mitochondria where the Krebs cycle occurs.

Compartmentalization in Mitochondria

The benefit is having optimized pH and enzyme conditions for the Krebs cycle.

Compartmentalization in Chloroplast

Helps to keep the light-harvesting activity separate from where the Calvin cycle takes place.

Thylakoids

The branching membranes inside chloroplasts that help organize into grana and increase surface area for light absorption.

Calvin Cycle

The process that occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts, producing glucose.

Polysomes

Groups of ribosomes translating mRNA simultaneously, allowing for multiple copies of the same polypeptide.

Cisternae

The stack-like structures of the Golgi apparatus where proteins are processed.

Endocytosis

The process in which a protein binds to a receptor to bring it into the cell.

Invagination

The process by which a membrane surface intucks to form a vesicle.

Clathrin

A specialized protein that polymerizes to form a lattice network during receptor-mediated endocytosis.

Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

A process used by cells to take in specific molecules like hormones and antibodies.

Two Modifications for Proteins in the Golgi

Removing/adding of sugars or the addition of sulfate groups.

Organelle

Discrete subunits in cells that perform specific functions.

Membrane-bound organelles

Organelles that are surrounded by a membrane, such as the RER, SER, and Golgi apparatus.

Centrifugation

A process used to separate one material from others based on density and mass.

Homogenate

A mixture of homogenized cells used for centrifugation to separate cell components.

Nuclear envelope

A double membrane surrounding the nucleus that regulates passage of materials in and out.

Compartmentalization

Division of the cell interior into separate areas to allow different biological processes to occur without interference.

Lysosomes

Small spherical vesicles containing digestive enzymes active in acidic environments.

Phagocytosis

Process by which cells capture and engulf foreign particles, forming a phagocytic vacuole.

Nuclear pores

Openings in the nuclear membrane that facilitate communication between the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Svedberg (S)

A non-SI unit that measures the time it takes for a particle to settle in a solution, used in centrifugation.

Centrioles

A pair of organelles found in animal cells that form the centrosome and help grow spindle fibers during cell division.

Cilia

Short, hair-like structures made of microtubules that move substances along cell surfaces.

Flagella

Longer, whip-like structures made of microtubules used for the motility of some cells such as sperm.

Chloroplasts

Organelles found in plant cells that conduct photosynthesis, converting light energy into chemical energy.

Plastids

Group of organelles that include chloroplasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts, not found in animal cells.

Vacuole

A fluid-filled space in plant cells that maintains turgor pressure and regulates waste.

Cell Wall

A strong outer layer surrounding the plasma membrane in plant cells, made of cellulose.

Glycoproteins

Proteins bonded with sugar molecules that help cells adhere together in animal tissues.

Fungal Cells

Eukaryotic cells that absorb nutrients from their environment and have cell walls made of chitin.

Endosymbiotic Theory

Proposal that eukaryotic cells evolved from prokaryotic cells through engulfment and mutualism.

Gene Expression

The process through which specific genes are activated to produce specific proteins, leading to cell specialization.

Proteome

The complete set of proteins expressed by a cell, tissue, or organism, unique to its function.

Multicellularity

The condition of being composed of multiple cells that can be specialized for various functions.

Control of Cell Specialization

Mechanism by which the nucleus directs cell activities based on DNA, determining cell type.

Cell Differentiation

The process by which unspecialized cells develop into specialized cells with specific functions.