Section B Paper 1 Families and Households Revision

A family (ONS definition)

‘A married couple/cohabiting couple with or without children, or a lone parent with at least one child.’

A household

‘one person living alone, or a group of people (not necessarily related) living at the same address who share cooking facilities, a living room sitting room or dining room.’

A family (GP Murdock definition) (1949)

a social group characterised by common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. Includes adults of both sexes who have a socially approved sexual relationship, and one or more children.

The Nuclear Family

a family unit made up of two parents of the opposite sex and their children, who live together in the same household

The extended family

where relatives such as uncles/ aunts or grandparents reside permanently in the same household as those making up the nuclear family

The reconstituted family

two partners living in one household sharing parental duties for one or more children, but only one of them is the biological parent.

The lone parent family

one adult with one or more children living in one household

The same sex family

two adults of the same sex living together with children

The four functions of the nuclear family:

Sexual

Reproductive

Economic

Educational

Sexual

regulates sexual behaviour and encourages fidelity (faithfulness).

Sex within marriage contributes to social order and stability by promotes marriage as a social goal

Reproductive

the next generation. Children function to stabilise marriage.

Economic

the family pools resources and provides for all members. Children are dependent on parents for a number of years so parents become productive workers. Adults provide for their children but also contribute to the effective organisation of the economy and society.

Educational

function of primary socialisation (teaching of norms, values, culture, traditions) which maintains values, culture and social order of a society

What did Murdok argue about families

The family is so useful to society that it is inevitable and universal. This means that it’s impossible not to have family units in society and societies everywhere have families.

Criticisms of Murdock

Murdock’s definition of the family is very ethnocentric (prioritising the values and culture of a particular group). It is reflective of a particular time and place - 1940s America.

Murdock’s emphasis on two parents, and particularly heterosexual marriage, is politically conservative: he believed there were ‘right’ and ‘wrong’ ways to organise family life.

What is the Functionalist belief about what the family does?

Functionalists believe that the family plays an important role in maintaining social order and cohesion. It does this by fulfilling a number of key functions that help meet the basic needs of society.

what does Talcott Parsons argue

Parsons argued that family structures and relationships have been shaped by the industrial revolution

Talcott Parsons - Pre-industrial societies

Made of lots of small farming communities. Extended families often owned, lived on and worked on the same plot of land to provide the food and shelter needed for the whole family to survive.

The family gave the children the basic skills and education they needed to take on the role of an adult on the farm when they grew up

Everyone was responsible for caring for the other members - grandparents looked after children when parents were working; the elderly were looked after by all

The effects of industrialisation on the family

During industrial rev, factories were built in urban areas, requiring families to be geographically mobile in order to get to work.

Mother, father and children (the nuclear family) moved away from their extended families to take advantage of wage-labour opportunities in urbanised areas.

Once adults were earning wages in factories, they no longer had the time to produce their own food, or their own shelter etc. Nuclear families became dependent on - and helped to create demand for - businesses to provide resources like food.

The family no longer had time to perform the function of educating its young or caring for its elderly, so the state eventually took over these functions.

Parsons - two irreducible functions

Primary socialisation of children - a child could only become a responsible and effective social adult if socialised into shared norms and values (value consensus). Families were ‘personality factories’. Mothers played a major role.

The stabilisation of adult personalities - relieve stresses of everyday living/working for adult members of the family which was essential as extended family no longer close by.

Primary Socialisation of Children

(parsons)

Viewed nuclear families as ‘personality factories’, capable of moulding any child into a responsible citizen

He believed that personalities are ‘made, not born’

Any child could turn out well if they were socialised well

Similar to Murdock, Parsons placed major emphasis on the role of the nuclear family in the socialisation process.

Warm bath theory

The nuclear family could act as a ‘warm bath’ - Soothes and relaxes the mind and body after a day of being exposed to the stresses of the workplace and modern-day living. Parsons believed that marriage was crucial to this.

The Stabilisation of Adult Personalities

Warm bath theory

Steel and Kidd (2001) note that the home is a place where you can ‘let yourself go’. This stabilises the adult personality and strengthens social stability in wider society

It also stabilises because the nuclear unit gives men and women clear and distinct social roles.

The husband - instrumental leader - responsible for economic welfare, living standards and protection. Wage earner. Head of household.

The wife - expressive leader - socialisation of children and responsible for emotional care and support of family members

The Marxist theory of the Family

Marxists are very critical of the functionalist view that the modern family has evolved in order to benefit society.

Marxists generally see the nuclear family as serving the interests of the ruling class because it promotes capitalist or ruling class ideology aimed at discouraging working-class criticism of capitalism or the inequalities of the economic system.

Zaretsky 20th century Marxist

Three key ideas…

Socialisation of children into capitalist ideologies

Nuclear family stabilises the worker away from responding to oppression from the capitalist workplace (married men less likely to strike)

Zaretsky argues that the nuclear family is an essential component of capitalism because it is the major unit of consumption.

Criticisms of the Marxist view of the family

Marxism is a structural theory, and, like functionalism, fails to consider how individuals experience and interpret the family. Marxism may neglect the positive emotional and social satisfaction people get from the family. (very negative outlook on the family)

Focuses on the benefits to the economy and the working man’s boss. It ignores other benefits to the individual and society.

Zaretsky fails to consider that some parents may resist ruling class ideology by teaching their kids values and norms of working class culture. (empowering them).

Some people are aware of the pitfalls of capitalism, but go along with it anyway as they believe it provides a better standard of living than communism.

Feminist theories of the Family

Like Marxists, Feminists are conflict theorists and have been highly critical of the family.

Feminists see the family as a negative environment for women. They introduced the study of areas of family life such as housework and domestic violence into Sociology.

They challenge the idea that family life is based upon cooperation, shared interests and love and have tried to show that men obtain greater benefits from families than others.

However, not all Feminists agree on the way to overcome the patriarchal society they identify.

Marxist Feminism

The patriarchy is deliberately constructed by the ruling class and designed to reproduce and justify gender exploitation because this benefits the organisation of capitalist society

Focus on contribution of domestic labour – such as housework and childcare – to capitalist economies. They point out that such work is unpaid but has great value.

Women reproduce the labour force

Women absorb anger (male alienation)

Women are a reserve army of cheap labour

Radical Feminism

Calls for a radical reordering of society in which male supremacy is eliminated in all social and economic contexts. They seek to abolish patriarchy by challenging existing social norms and institutions, rather than through a purely political process.

All societies founded on patriarchy.

Men are the enemy

The family and marriage are the key institutions in patriarchal society.

Separatism/political lesbianism - sexual orientation is a political and feminist choice

Liberal Feminism

Campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights and opportunities for women.

March of progress view: things are gradually improving.

Women's oppression is gradually being overcome:

Changes in the law (e.g. Sex Discrimination Act 1975; Equality Act 2010)

Changes in people's attitudes

Believe we are moving towards greater equality but full equality depends on further reforms and changes in socialisation patterns of children

Difference Feminism

We cannot generalise about women’s experiences- they all have very different experiences of the family.

Criticises feminism for being about white, western, heterosexual, middle-class women.

Women belonging to different social groups have different experiences of patriarchy.

New Right theories of the Family

NR thinkers take the view that the traditional nuclear family and the moral character of the young are under attack or threatened by government social policies.

NR emphasise that the nuclear family plays an important role in shaping the moral order of society. This is achieved by making sure that the next generation is socialised into values such as discipline, respect, civility and responsibility.

Parenting based on these principles is seen as producing order and stability and is therefore regarded by the New Right as a key feature of a 'morally healthy' family, and consequently a 'socially healthy' society.

What issue did the New Right take with many of the social policies which had been passed by previous governments?

They believed that they neglected the traditional heterosexual nuclear family

They believed that they encouraged a dependency culture

marxist feminist views on family

Most Marxist-feminist analysis has focused on the contribution of domestic labour – such as housework and childcare – to capitalist economies. They point out that such work is unpaid but has great value. For example, Margaret Benston (1972) suggests that the nuclear family, and especially women's nurturing role within it, is important to capitalism because it produces and rears the future workforce at little cost to the capitalist state.

Women's unpaid domestic labour - housework as well as sexual services – also ensures that the male workforce is fit and healthy for work and consequently productive. In other words, the housework role (which involves feeding the male worker, shopping to meet his needs, bringing up his children and making sure he has a clean and relaxing environment to return home to every day) contributes to the effectiveness of male labour and the value of the work he produces for his employer.

radical feminist views on family

Radical feminists reject the functionalist idea that "the family is a cooperative unit founded on common interests and mutual support between husband and wife". Instead they have focused on how the nuclear family functions mainly to benefit heterosexual (straight) men. It does this by teaching children patriarchal ideology and especially the idea that the sexual division of labour is 'natural and unchangeable’ via gender role socialisation.

Other radical feminists have examined why the nuclear family is often the site of violence against women and children. Radical Feminists working in these fields point out that such violence is often the product of a patriarchal set of ideas that see women as second-class citizens and are deeply rooted in a society's history and culture.

liberal feminist views on family

economic changes have led to a dramatic cultural change in women's attitudes, which she calls a 'genderquake'. women today have a different attitude towards family responsibilities, education and careers compared with their grandmothers. They are no longer content to see their lives as defined simply by marriage, family and children. They are now more likely to aspire to university, careers and economic independence.

difference feminist views on family

Difference feminism also recognises that there is increasing family diversity today and women may not be equally exploited in all family types. For example, many women are lone parents and therefore cannot be

exploited by a cohabiting man.

Calhoun (2003) points out women in lesbian families cannot be exploited by men.

Difference feminists therefore suggest that not all women are equally exploited in the family. Some are more exploited than others.

New Labour’s Child Tax Credit Policy

Labour introduced a Child Tax Credit (in addition to Child Benefit) in 2003 for all families that pay income tax, which Finch argues recognised children as individuals in their own right. Basically, this meant that depending on the amount of children you had it reduced the amount of tax you paid slightly. This is paid to the main carer of the children, usually the mother.

However, Labour's very explicit family policy attracted New Right criticism that it undermined family privacy and that Labour was constructing a 'nanny state’ that interfered excessively in family life.

Explain why the new right emerged as a branch of sociological and political thinking in the 1970s-80s

A reaction or backlash to…

More liberal society - Sexual rev (sexual promiscuity)

Moral breakdown - Welfare state

Permissive society

List three acts or laws passed between the 1960s and present day that people on the New Right would criticise

1967 Abortion Act

1970 Equal Pay Act

2013 Same sex marriage

What is New Labour & how did they change social policy?

A modernised version/ rebranded version of the Labour Party. “Traditional values in a modern setting” led by Tony Blair. More individualistic - MORE SOCIALLY LIBERAL

name two conservative PM

Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) and John Major (1990-1997)

Conservative social policy thinking

Preference for traditional nuclear families

Encouraging individual and parental responsibility (especially paternal responsibility) and also responsibility for elderly relatives, etc.

Encouraging mothers to stay at home

Concern that the welfare system might encourage non-traditional family forms and irresponsible behaviour

Conservative governments 2010-2022

(The Politics)

Between 2010 - 2015 the Conservatives and Liberal Democrats formed a coalition (power sharing) government.

In 2015, David Cameron won a small Conservative majority at the general election. He resigned in 2016 over the Brexit referendum.

Theresa May took over as PM in 2016, but resigned in 2019 after a disastrous GE in 2017 and mishandling of Brexit.

May was succeeded by Boris Johnson (2019-2022) Liz Truss (2022-2022) and Rishi Sunak (2022-2014). The Conservatives have not won a general election victory since December 2019 - 80 seats (Boris Johnson)

Conservative governments 2010-2024

Social policy

Coalition (2010-15): The conservatives had a mixture of maintaining the NR approach of previous govs with more modern attitudes, whereas the Liberal Democrats tended to have a more liberal approach, accepting alternative family types.

2016-22: The Cons have had other issues to focus on (Brexit & Covid). Generally speaking, they’ve continued to flirt the line between being more socially liberal whilst maintaining aspects of the NR approach.

Austerity - coalition social policy

After the financial crisis of 08-09, the coalition introduced a policy of austerity by focussing on public spending cuts to reduce the national debt.

Sociologists such as Bradshaw (2013) claim that these cuts disproportionately affect the poor and lead to broken homes.

Child poverty grew by 1.6% across the period.

The Autumn Budget in 2022 continued austerity measures

Socially Liberal traits

Willing to provide help from the state/government

Open to a range of family types

Believe people can choose the best thing for themselves

Think of individual needs

Socially Conservative traits

Want to preserve tradition and traditional values

Want to preserve the traditional, heterosexual nuclear family.

Want the family to be self-reliant

Think of the family as a unit (‘familistic regime’)

criticisms of Conservative Govts 1979-1997

Marxists argue NR policies just cut state expenditure to avoid taxing the rich - benefitting the ruling class

Despite their best efforts to preserve the nuclear family, this period saw the largest growth in family diversity

New Labour 1997-2010

Some argue they didn’t go far enough on gay rights

Whilst they were more open to other family types, they hadn’t really moved on from nuclear family being the ideal

Coalition Govt 2010-2015

No sense of consistency in social policy passed - main focus has been spending cuts

Inequality of approach to same sex and opposite sex couples

Public attitudes potentially don’t reflect changes - e.g. fathers not taking advantage of parental leave

Demography

The study of human populations and how they change over time.

Demography considers the size, composition and distribution of a population.

Population change is determined by which demographic factors

Birth Rate

Death Rate

Migration

Fertility rate

The demography of the UK - the Big Picture

Population growth in the UK since 1900 but at a declining rate. 1901 the growth rate averaged 1% per year

Now fallen to just under 1%

Part of this is because of declining birth rates...

Since 1900, overall trend for birth rates in the UK has been a decline. In 1901 there were 1,093,000 births but in 2023 only 664,400 babies were born. However, there have been peaks and troughs within this decline

Decreased infant mortality rate has reduced the birth rate

Improvements in neonatal medicine and care have reduced the number of children dying before the age of one

Women are having fewer children as they are more certain that their children will live into adulthood

Women are delaying the age of having children as it is no longer regarded as dangerous to have a child over the age of 30

Changing economic position of women has reduced the birth rate

Negative correlation between female employment and birth rate e.g. as employment rates increase, birth rate decreases

This can be evidence through increases in female employment throughout the later part of the 20th century and the reduction of the birth rate at this time

Women are delaying having children until later in life and this reduces the number of children they can or choose to have

Economic cost of having children has reduced the birth rate

Estimated cost of raising a child today is estimated to be anywhere between £150,000 and £250,000

Previously children were seen as a form of economic insurance for adults in old age but increased affluence of elderly in comparison to young means this is no longer the case/necessary

Buchanan and Rotkirch (2013) found the cost of having children was an important factor for women when deciding to have children

Improved access to and availability of contraception has reduced the birth rate

Increased availability to and effectiveness of contraception has enabled women to have greater control over their reproductive rights

Legalisation of abortion in 1969 has also helped to control the number of unwanted pregnancies

Greater awareness of sexually transmitted infections has led to greater use of barrier contraception in relationships from the late 20th century onwards

Families can plan when to have children and how many children to have

Impact of reduced birth rates

Fewer children in society increases the average age of the UK population

Imbalance of the dependency ratio as there are fewer children to replace the adult workforce

UK’s declining birth rate, plus a declining death rate has led to an ageing population in the UK

What is the difference between birth rate and total fertility rate?

Birth rate- the number of live births per 1000 of the population per year

whereas…

Total fertility rate - average number of children a women will have during childbearing age (15-45)

Why have Birth & Fertility Rates declined?

1. Decreased Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)

2. Changing role of Women ‘Genderquake’.

3. Improved access to contraception

The Death Rate - historic trends

In general, number of births in the UK exceeds the number of deaths but the gap is narrow (2021 - 694,685 births and 666,659 deaths)

1901 - Population 38 million: 632,000 deaths officially registered

The annual number of deaths 1.7% of the population

2021 - Population 67 million: 666,659 deaths

The annual number of deaths just under 1% per cent of the population

General trend mortality has fallen significantly - the death rate is roughly the same since 1900 BUT an increase in total population means the proportion of deaths has fallen

Explanations for the fall in the death rate / rise in life expectancy

1. Improved Public Health Policy

2.Rising wages and living standards

3. Provision of social housing for the poor

6.Creation of NHS (National Health Service)