Changes in Organising the Military (1790-1918)

(a) What indicated the need for reform in 1793?

The poor performance of the army in 1793-4.

(a) What reforms did the Duke of York introduce that helped transform the army? (1793-4)

1. ending the worst excesses of the purchasing of commissions system

2. establishing a military college to improve the professionalisation of future officers

3. created light infantry regiments

(b) Where did McNeill and Tuloch go in 1855 to review the organisation and delivery of supplies?

the Crimea

-specifically reviewing delivery of supplies to Balaclava

(b) Why did McNeill and Tuloch go to the Crimea specifically during the Crimean War? (1855)

As during the Crimean War, army affairs had the public and parliament very interested.

(b) What were the McNeill-Tuloch report's findings and what was it highly critical of? (1855)

-critical of army's high command and officers in charge of the commissariat

-findings:

1. soldiers died from disease and poor health more than actual warfare

2. problem in supply

3. lack of veg

4. low rations

5. shortage of medicine

(b) What did the McNeill-Tuloch report recommend? (1855)

1. improve army supply procedures

2. introduce nutritious diets to prevent disease

3. faster distribution of supply needed

4. replace rum with port as thought it was better 4 u

(b) What was the impact of the McNeill-Tuloch report? Did it lead to change? (1855)

- caused scandal and couldn't be ignored

-yes led to change

1. Royal Warrant issued in 1858 calling for a Reform of the Commissariat (greater responsibility to army)-commissariat made more professional and reformed

2. improvements to the army's medical services(also partly due to Nightingale)

3. greater gov involvement in management of the army

(b) Why is the McNeill-Tuloch report not a reform? (1855)

As it is a report outlining what reform is needed, it is not the actual reform itself.

(c) What major programme was launched after 1856?

A major programme of barrack construction.

(c) Did military reforms betwee 1856-68 lead to big changes?

NO

1. soldiers remained poorly paid

2. military discipline remained harsh and flogging not abolished until 1881

(d) Which two wars highlighted the inefficiency of the army and its structure? (1868-74)

The Crimean War and the Indian Mutiny of 1857.

(d) What reform's of the army's organisation did Cardwell(Secretary of State for War) introduce? (1868-74)

1. Shortened enlistment from 12 to 6 years active duty and 6 years reserve obligation

2. purchasing of commissions system abolished

3. introduced link battalions - one battalion at home, one abroad and they would swap so everyone can be at home at some point

4. abolished flogging as punishment

(d) Why were Cardwell's Reforms failures? (1868-74)

-they promised more than they delivered

1. army lost more men than it gained by introdution of short-service enlistments

2. abolition of purchase system did little to change social class divisions of the officer corps

3. constant need for men to serve overseas put great strain on home battalions

(e) What war prompted demands for reform in 1905?

The Boer War

-This led to gov investigations into military planning, recruitment and army organisation

(e) By 1905 what country was increasingly seen as a potential enemy?

Germany.

(e) What reforms did Haldane introduce? (1905-12)

1. A two line army:

- an expeditionary force of 150k men

- a territorial force which was created from volunteers,militia and yeomanry to support and expand the expeditionary force-200k men

2. existing military corps in schools/unis reorganised into the Officer Training Corps

3. bright uniforms replaced with khaki

(f) Who implemented the army reforms? (1914)

Army officers.

- General Haig improved preparedness by holding regular large scale manoeuvres

- General Wilson formulated mobilisation plans

(f) By 1914, had the army improved professionally?

Yes BUT:

- army commanders underestimated the machine gun's potential and still thought cavalry charges would win battles

- in mid 1914, Germany had 84 divisions and Britain only had 6 ready for a European War

(g) Why was the British Navy much stronger than the army? (1790-1854)

Navy had proven themselves superior to all competition in the French Wars.

(g) When was the navy drastically reduced in size? (1790-1854)

After 1815

- Warships in commission fell from 713 to 121 by 1818

- by 1817, 90% commissioned officers on half pay

(h) Did the reduction in the size of the navy impact it at all? (1790-1854)

- No they still ruled the waves

- main fleet stationed in europe waters

- 130 frigates and gunboats defended trade routes and the empire

(i) What reforms did Sir Graham introduce in 1832? (1790-1854)

1. Improved the navy's administration and ensured less bribery, nepotism and corruption

2. new ships and gunnery (small mobile vessels)

3. set up permanent school of gunnery where crews would practice shooting

4. reversed previous policies that had 'neglected the art of gunnery'

5. system of automatic promotion ended - officers had to have 2 years experience at sea b4 their promotion to commander

6. the civilian-run Naval Office and Victualling Board(supplied food etc) was abolished-all aspects of supply were placed under naval control (greater power to navy)

(k) What happened to the navy during the late 19th century? (1854-1914)

- nearly all the navy's vessels changed from sail and wood to steam and steel

- technological changes forced Britain to keep modernsing its navy which was very costly

(l) In the 1880s what countries increased their navies? (1854-1914)

France, Russia, USA, Germany

(l) What policy did Britain adopt in 1889? (1854-1914)

A policy where the navy had to be kept up to the combined strength of the next two greatest naval powers.

(l) What did Germany introduce in 1898 that posed a threat to Britain's trade and security? (1854-1914)

A new law that would double the size of its fleet.

(m) What reforms did Admiral Fisher introduce in 1904? (1854-1914)

1. centralised decision-making structure within the admiralty - he removed bureaucracy by streamlining operations etc which enhanced efficiency

2. modernisation of fleets - constructed new battleships such as the HMS Dreadnought which revolutionised naval warfare with its speed and firepower - sparked a naval race w/Germany

3. The Selbourne Scheme - all naval officers to be trained in common and later they'd specialise in engineering, navigation or gunnery

- anyone would be eligible to command ships and be promoted to admiral if reached high rank - more meritocratic navy

4. submarines used to save money(important for Fisher) - 25x cheaper than battleships

(n.1) What was seen as an unacceptable imposition on the liberties of Britons? (1793-1815)

Conscription - thus recruitment caused problems for the fighting forces

(n.1) After 1793 what was the Navy's strength usually around? (1793-1815)

120,000 men

(n.1) What did the navy rely on given that voluntary recruitment did not provide enough men? (1793-1815)

the Quota System and Impressment.

(n.1) What was Impressment? (1793-1815)

- force seafarers aged 15-55 to join the navy

- press gangs sent out to round up men around ports

- captains would press merchant seamen into service

- by 1805, half the navy's crews made up of pressed men

(n.1) What was the Quota System? (1793-1815)

Each county required to supply a certain number of volunteers, based on its population and number of seaports

- to meet quotas, counties often gave criminals option of volunteering for the navy

(n.1) What class did most naval officers come from? (1793-1815)

- Professional Middle Classes

- many were related to naval officers

(n.2) Why was recruitment for the army difficult? (1793-1815)

1. no press gangs operated on the army's behalf

2. pay was poor

3. high death rate

4. harsh discipline

(n.2) What was the Militia? (1793-1815)

- made up 1/5 Britain's land forces

- home defence

- recruits selected by ballots

- had to serve for 5 years

- after 1805, 74,000 volunteered for regular service

- so its a myth that army filled with criminals - many soldiers motivated by patriotism and adventure

(n.2) Why did many Hanoverians join the King's German Legion(KGL)? (1793-1815)

- As British Kings were also rulers of Hanover

- soon KGL also included deserters from French armies

- by 1813, 52,000 foreigners in the army which was 1/5 of entire force

(n.2) By 1814, how many officers were there? (1793-1815)

- 10,000

- most from professional classes

- many had fathers who had been officers

(o.1) What did recruitment fot Britain's armed forces look like after 1815? (1815-1914)

Continued to rely on volunteers.

(o.1) Why was Britain able to retain and recruit enough sailors to man its ships after 1815? (1815-1914)

Given the enormous de-commissioning of ships after 1815.

(0.2) Why were the British army able to supply enough men to fight in Crimean and Boer Wars if they struggled to find volunteers in peacetime? (1815-1914)

Due to patriotic sentiment.

(o.2) What changes were there in the composition of the army? (1815-1914)

- in 1851, Irish were 37% of all non-commissioned personell - by 1913 they were only 9%

- demographic changes meant army drew recruits more from urban areas

(o.2) What was one consequence of the Boer War and the German threat on army officers?

- the spread of cadet corps, esp in public schools

- in 1908, Haldane organised these bodies into the Officer Training Corps

-by 1914, 20k sklboys and 5k undergraduates enrolled

(p) What happened in 1914 that meant Britain had to increase its army? (1914-15)

Outbreak of WW1

(p) What was Lord Kitcheners role in recruitment of men in the army? (1914-15)

- he became Secretary of State for War in 1914

- given the gov's view that conscription would be unpopular, Kitchener had to raise his 'New Armies' by voluntary means

(p) How many recruits joined the army in Aug and Sept 1914?

761k

(p) Why did number of volunteers remain high until mid 1915?

- patriotism

- duty

- self-sacrifice

- this spread through society through education, youth movements,etc

- pressure from employers, friends and women

(p) What were Pals regiments? (1914-15)

- battalions of friends/pals

- thought this would encourage men to enlist

- by Oct 1914, there were 50 Pals Battalions

(p) What was the composition of the army like? (1914-15)

- volunteers from all classes

- patterns of enlistment uneven however

- places like Scotland made up majority of battalions whilst places like Cornwall only 11

(p) What did Kitchener do to remedy the shortage of officers? (1914-15)

- he needed atleast 30k more officers

1. Courses at Sandhurst and Woolwich were shortened

2. Retired officers brought back into service

3. temporary commissions were granted

(q) Why did many MPs call for conscription in mid-1915? (1915-18)

As army enlistment began to decline.

(q) When was conscription accepted by the cabinet and why? (1915-18)

- accepted on Dec 1915

- Lloyd George threatened his resignation

- conscription was for unmarried men and widowers aged 18-41

(q) Who did the Military Service Act Jan 1916 exempt from conscription? (1915-18)

Unfit, Conscientious objectors, men enganged on essential war work

(q) When was the 2nd military act passed that required all men single or married aged 18-41 to enlist?

May 1916

(q) Was conscription succesful? (1915-18)

NO it did not provide more troops

- produced 750k new claims for exemption - most of them valid

- in 1st 6 months of conscription, average monthly enlistment was less than the rate under the voluntary system

- this remained an issue until Nov 1918