Paper 3

Flashcards on Generalizability, Transferability, Bias, Credibility, Ethics, and Research Methods

Generalizability

The extent to which conclusions from a study can be applied to contexts beyond the study itself; a term for external validity.

Transferability

The extent to which findings from one study can be applied to another context; the qualitative research equivalent of generalizability.

Ecological Validity

A type of generalizability; how well a study's results can be expected in a different environment.

Mundane Realism

Whether the procedures in a study accurately reflect real-life situations; an important consideration when assessing generalizability.

Population Validity

Assessing generalizability based on the sample's representation of the wider population.

Bias

When an individual's existing thoughts, beliefs, or ideas influence their thinking or behavior, especially influencing the results of a study.

Researcher Triangulation

Using more than one researcher to reduce the chances that one researcher's beliefs or opinions affect the study's results.

Methodological Triangulation

Using mixed methods (qualitative and quantitative) to gather data and comparing them for consistency, to help avoid the effects of researcher bias.

Reflexivity

In qualitative research, the researcher reflects on their role in the research process and how their perspective might be affecting the results.

Credibility

The extent to which the results of a study accurately represent what was being studied; the qualitative equivalent of validity

Validity

Accuracy of the methods in achieving the desired aims (in quantitative research)

Inter-rater reliability

Is assessed via researcher triangulation, and, if reported, can help the credibility/validity of the findings.

Data Triangulation

Gathering data at more than one time to improve the credibility/validity of the findings.

Ethical Considerations - Anonymity

Removing participants' names from the data when reporting to save them from potential embarrassment.

Ethical Considerations - Debriefing

Researchers reveal the full nature of the study, including aims and results, to reduce any long-term negative effects.

Ethical Considerations - Informed Consent

Participants agree to participate in a study and have been given enough information to make an informed decision.

Ethical Considerations - Right to Withdraw

Participants are assured they can leave the study at any time to avoid harm or stress.

Ethical Considerations - Conflicts of Interest

Disclosing any possible conflicts of interest when reporting the results (e.g., funding sources).

Random Sampling

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected.

Opportunity Sampling

Gathers participants who happen to be available for study at a convenient time or place.

Self-selected Sampling

Participants are the ones that approach the researchers and volunteer to participate in the study.

Purposive Sampling

Participants who share characteristics that are relevant and of interest to researchers are asked to participate in the study

Snowball Sampling

A group of initial participants invite others to participate in the study.

Naturalistic Observation

Subjects' behaviour is observed in a naturalistic environment. Field notes and other data gathering techniques are used. Observations may be followed by interviews.

Covert Observation

Subjects are not aware they are being observed, usually take place in naturalistic environments in qualitative research

Overt Observation

Subjects are aware they are being observed, usually take place in naturalistic environments in qualitative research.

Participant observation

The researcher becomes a member of the group they are observing

Non-participant observation

the researcher stays removed from the group they are observing

Semi-structured interview

Follows an interview schedule with topics to be covered, but allows for deviation and elaboration. Can include open and closed questions resembling a conversation.

Unstructured interviews

The interviewer has topics to cover, but there is a lot of freedom and the precise questions and order are not fixed. Can include open and closed questions. The interview evolves as a result of the interactions between the researcher and the interviewee.

Focus group interviews

A group interview (about 6-10 participants). Rely on group processes and the interaction of individuals to help reveal information that might not be revealed in individual interviews. The interviewer acts as a moderator and, if done well, the interview will resemble a group discussion.

True Experiment

Examines the effects of an IV on a DV. The researcher manipulates the IV, so random allocation to the treatment or control condition is possible. Takes place in a controlled environment and extraneous variables are controlled

Field Experiment

Examines the effects of an IV on a DV. Takes place in a naturalistic setting. Control of extraneous variables is not always possible

Quasi-Experiment

Examines the effects of an IV on a DV. One or more conditions of a true experiment can't be met, e.g. no random allocation is possible

Natural Experiment

Examines the effects of an IV on a DV. The IV is naturally occurring. Extraneous variables may not always be controlled. Note: there is often not a clear distinction between a quasi-experiment and a natural experiment.

Correlational Study

Does not have an IV or DV, but has co-variables. Tests the strength of relationships of co-variables by calculating a correlation coefficient. Values of coefficients range from -1.0 to 1.0

Case Study

An in-depth investigation of an individual, small group or organization. Multiple methods are used to gather data (which is what makes them in-depth). They often use a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods