The social impacts of religious and economic changes under Mary I

What was the state of Marian Catholicism?

Marian Catholicism was incomplete: liturgical rites and religious art returned partially, but cults of saints, pilgrimages, and belief in purgatory largely disappeared; few shrines/relics reappeared, miracles aroused scepticism

How did the dissolution of chantries affect Catholic restoration?

It made popular Catholic re-education difficult, as oral traditions equivalent to scripture had largely vanished

Were guilds and fraternities fully restored under Mary?

No, only a minority were re-established and with more limited functions

What is known about church attendance under Mary?

Declined during Edwardian prayer books; unclear if it fully recovered under Mary

How did local populations respond to Mary's anticipated religious restoration?

Many anticipated the return of Catholicism and raised large sums for conservative religious projects, showing enthusiasm before government action

How many MPs opposed the repeal of Edwardian religious laws?

About 80 MPs

How many people went into exile due to religious changes under Mary?

Approximately 800, mostly political elites, families, and servants; went to Protestant centres like Strasbourg, Geneva, Frankfurt, and Emden

What were Mary's initial problems in restoring Catholicism?

Protestantism had supporters in London and the south; the Protestant Church was protected by statute law; political elites had gained monastic lands and resisted surrendering them

What were Mary's initial problems in restoring Catholicism?

Protestantism had a minority but significant following in London and other southern towns; the Protestant Church was protected in statute law; many political elites had gained financially from monastic lands and resisted giving them up

How did Mary initially deal with Protestant clergy?

She deprived seven prominent bishops of their livings, imprisoned some, and ordered foreign Protestants to leave the country, though most had already left voluntarily

What actions did Mary's first parliament (Oct 1553) take?

Repealed Edward VI's religious laws; restored Henry VIII's order of service; deprived clergy who had married when allowed of their livings; upheld the legal status of the Church of England, reaffirming royal authority in religious matters

Why was reversing royal supremacy legally complex for Mary?

To reverse royal supremacy via Parliament, she had to acknowledge that Henry VIII's statutes were legally valid, meaning statute law was superior to divine law, which conflicted with her belief in papal authority

What delayed the final resolution of Church status?

The dispute over ex-monastic lands in private hands; the Pope and Pole wanted submission to Rome first before any dispensations, but political realities in England and advice from Charles V forced a compromise

Who was Cardinal Reginald Pole and when did he arrive in England?

Exiled English cardinal, Papal legate, and future Archbishop of Canterbury; returned in November 1554 to oversee the restoration of Catholicism, after political agreement on Church lands was reached

What did Mary's third parliament achieve?

Reversed the Henrician Act of Attainder against Pole; restored heresy laws; allowed the repeal of anti-papal legislation from Henry VIII's reign; set the stage for the second statute of repeal revoking royal supremacy (Jan 1555)

What complications arose with Pope Paul IV?

Anti-Spanish and suspicious of Mary's husband Philip and of Pole; dismissed Pole as papal legate in April 1557; accused Pole of heresy but Mary refused to send him to Rome; appointed William Peto as new legate, whom Mary refused to acknowledge as superior to Pole, complicating English Church governance

What were key milestones in Mary's religious legislation?

1553 - First statute of repeal (repealed Edward VI's religious laws); Nov 1554 - Third parliament convened, Pole returns, heresy laws restored; 1555 - Second statute of repeal (Henry VIII's anti-papal laws repealed); Feb 1555 - first burnings for heresy; 21 Mar 1556 - burning of Archbishop Cranmer, symbolising enforcement of Catholic orthodoxy

What was Foxe's 'Book of Martyrs'?

First published in 1563, widely read in Elizabethan England, second only to the Bible; depicted Mary as cruel and ungodly; established the English as a Protestant nation

What famous quote is associated with Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley in Foxe's book?

Latimer to Ridley: "Be of good comfort, Master Ridley, and play the man. We shall this day light such a candle, by God's grace, in England, as I trust shall never be put out."

How many Protestants were executed under Mary and what was their profile?

289 in total: 237 men, 52 women; included three bishops (Cranmer, Hooper, Ridley), 21 other clergymen, 8 gentry; majority were ordinary men and women, showing Protestantism mattered beyond the elite

What was the impact of the burnings on public opinion?

Initial victims like John Rogers and Rowland Taylor elicited widespread sympathy; targeting humble victims strengthened public empathy; Council tried to restrict youth attendance but failed; policy did not extinguish heresy and worsened Mary's reputation

Where were the main sites of Protestant burnings?

London (60 burnings), Canterbury (Kent), Lewes (Sussex), Colchester (Essex); over three quarters of burnings in south-east England and East Anglia; no burnings in dioceses like Durham, reflecting regional Protestant penetration

What is a legatine synod?

A joint assembly summoned by a papal legate; under Mary, Cardinal Pole could summon clergy from both Canterbury and York provinces; regular Archbishops of Canterbury did not have this authority

What was the broader context of the Catholic Reformation?

Attempts across Europe to reform the Catholic Church internally, strengthening discipline, reaffirming doctrine, and countering Protestantism

What was the broader aim of Mary's religious policy beyond repression?

Pastoral restoration: improving the resources of the Church and the quality and quantity of priests, largely guided by Cardinal Pole

How did Pole ensure bishops fulfilled their pastoral duties?

Through the legatine synod of 1555-56, requiring bishops to reside in their dioceses, preach, and oversee parish religious life carefully

What was proposed for cathedrals under Pole's reforms?

Each cathedral was to have a seminary for training new priests, though this proposal was never implemented

How did parish-level commitment affect the success of Mary's reforms?

Success was strong in Catholic regions like Lancashire and Durham, but weak in southern areas like Kent; practice in London varied, with some parishes enthusiastic and others in ruins

By 1558, how much had Mary and Pole transformed England religiously?

While the majority of the country remained Catholic in sentiment, full re-Catholicisation was incomplete due to delays in restoring Church institutions and divisions between Crown and papacy

What does the variation in parish response reveal?

Religious change was uneven; local commitment and resources were crucial for the success of reforms

What were the Court of First Fruits and Tenths and the Court of Augmentations?

Courts set up in the 1530s to manage new revenue streams: First Fruits and Tenths handled funds previously sent to the papacy; Augmentations handled income from monastic lands

How did Mary's reign affect inflation?

Inflation continued due to population growth (long-term factor), debasement of the coinage (medium-term factor), harvest failures in 1555-56, and the 1557-58 sweating sickness

What improvements were made to financial administration under Mary?

The Court of Exchequer took over First Fruits and Tenths and Augmentations, adopting their more efficient methods; administration under Lord Treasurer Winchester was competent

What was Mary's one major financial mistake?

She remitted the final part of Edward VI's last subsidy, gaining popularity but at some financial cost

How did the Marian government prepare for long-term financial stability?

Plans for recoinage from 1556-58, later implemented under Elizabeth; introduction of a new Book of Rates in 1558 to increase customs revenue

How did Mary's government address poor relief?

Enforced laws against grain hoarders, encouraged conversion of pasture to tillage, and became more active in relief in response to harvest failures, influenza epidemic, and high taxation

What was the overall assessment of Mary's economic record?

Mixed: short-term inflation and hardship persisted, but long-term improvements in financial administration and preparation for recoinage benefited England under Elizabeth

When was Wyatt's Rebellion and what provoked it?

January-February 1554; provoked mainly by opposition to Mary's Spanish marriage, with some religious, xenophobic, and socio-economic grievances

Who led Wyatt's Rebellion and how large was his force?

Sir Thomas Wyatt; approximately 3,000 men

What were the motives of the rebels?

Religious concerns (Protestant supporters), xenophobia, economic grievances (decline of local cloth industry), gentry resentment, opposition to Spanish marriage

What was the significance of Wyatt's Rebellion?

Showed Protestant minority influence, popular suspicion of the Spanish marriage, led to execution of Lady Jane Grey, temporary imprisonment of Elizabeth, and highlighted Mary's resilience

What happened to Elizabeth during the rebellion?

Arrested and confined in the Tower; allegations of involvement could not be substantiated; eventually released

How close did Wyatt come to success?

Raised and maintained a large following, outmanoeuvred Duke of Norfolk, nearly took the City of London, but ultimately failed

Key events of Wyatt's Rebellion

25 Jan: Wyatt raises standard in Maidstone; 28 Jan: Norfolk retreats; 1 Feb: Mary rallies support at Guildhall; 3 Feb: Rebels stopped at London Bridge; 6 Feb: Rebels cross at Kingston upon Thames; 7 Feb: Wyatt surrenders at Ludgate

Was Wyatt's Rebellion socio-economic in origin?

Largely no; minor links to local cloth industry decline; primary cause was opposition to the Spanish marriage

How influential was humanism under Mary?

Humanism had very little influence under Marian Catholicism; neither evangelical humanism (linked to religious reform under Edward VI) nor Catholic humanism (associated with earlier scholars and martyrs) shaped policy, and the Church actively distanced itself from intellectual trends such as those promoted by Erasmus.

What was Reginald Pole's role in the English Church?

Pope-appointed legate and Archbishop of Canterbury; focused on practical pastoral reform, improving clerical quality, and enforcing Catholic observance at parish level rather than engaging in humanist intellectual debate.

How did Pope Paul IV view humanism?

He regarded Erasmus as a heretic, condemned his works, and placed them on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum, signalling a broader papal hostility to humanist influence in England.

What publications supported Marian religious education?

Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, published A Profitable and Necessary Doctrine and a book of homilies to replace the Edwardian versions, aimed at explaining Catholic faith in simple, accessible terms for clergy and laity.

How did Marian Catholicism approach papal supremacy?

Pole and Mary emphasised papal authority as central to the English Church, though Pope Paul IV's hostility and political complications with Philip of Spain meant that royal control remained paramount in practice, limiting the full assertion of papal supremacy.

What were the effects of Protestant exile publications?

Exiles published works promoting either moderate Protestant practice (using the 1552 prayer book) or radical reform (led by John Knox and Christopher Goodman); John Foxe collected materials for his Book of Martyrs, which would later shape English Protestant memory and anti-Marian sentiment under Elizabeth.

Did Mary's Catholic restoration succeed?

Partially; parish-level Catholicism recovered in some regions, devotional literature increased, and ordinations rose sharply, but the retention of former monastic lands by private owners, persistent Protestant sentiment, and papal conflicts prevented full restoration.

What social and religious obstacles did Mary face?

Protestant minority in the south-east, widespread secularisation of former monastic lands, political elites unwilling to relinquish property, papal hostility under Paul IV, and divisions within her own council and clergy.

What was the significance of clerical recruitment under Mary?

Ordinations boomed after nearly twenty years of decline, producing bishops and priests generally loyal to the Catholic faith, committed to pastoral care, preaching, and parish oversight, reflecting a partial recovery of the English Church's institutional and spiritual structure.

What were the limitations of Marian Catholicism?

Bishops and Church leaders, though competent and loyal, lacked the inspiration or authority to rebuild the Church fully; Pole's declining health and disputes with Pope Paul IV further undermined the potential for lasting reform, leaving the Marian Church incomplete.