Humanities Exam

Medieval- What were some of the defining features of both Romanesque and Gothic architecture.

Romanesque- Thick stone walls and heavy piers: These provided structural support and created a fortress-like appearance.

Rounded arches: A hallmark inherited from Roman architectural tradition.

Barrel and groin vaults: Used to support stone roofs rather than wooden ones.

Gothic- Pointed arches: Allowed for more verticality and flexibility in design.

Ribbed vaults: These distributed weight more efficiently, enabling taller and more complex structures.

Flying buttresses: External supports that allowed walls to be thinner and filled with stained glass.

14th Century-What were some of the major events occurring in the 14th century?

Hundred Years War- Conflict between England and France over rightful claims to the French throne.

Marked by the use of new military technology, like the longbow and eventually gunpowder weapons.

The Black Death- A devastating outbreak of bubonic plague that killed approximately one-third to half of Europe’s population.

Caused labor shortages, which empowered the working class and weakened manorial systems.

Medieval Architecture-Lasting Impacts of Romanesque and Gothic Architecture

Romanesque Impact:

Foundation of medieval architecture: Romanesque architecture established the blueprint for later church buildings.

Gothic Impact:

Architectural masterpieces: Structures like Chartres Cathedral, Notre-Dame de Paris, and Cologne Cathedral remain some of the most admired buildings in the world

14th Century- What were the effects on religion, philosophy, literature, artc, ect.

Religion-Romanesque churches reinforced the idea of the Church is a fortress of God, a place of refuge and strength in a chaotic world

Philosophy- Gothic architecture reflects reason and order, aligning with thinkers like Thomas Aquinas, who emphasized that God’s truth could be accessed through reason as well as faith.

Literature- Architectural settings are often reflected symbolically in texts — the cathedral becomes a metaphor for the soul, spiritual ascent, or moral structure.

Plague- Impacts

Social Impact: The Plague (1347–1351) killed 1/3 to 1/2 of Europe’s population, causing widespread grief and trauma.

Cultural: Obsession with death: Literature, art, and music reflected the morbid realities of the time — skeletons, death motifs, and the fragility of life.

Religious: The loss of confidence in Church leadership helped pave the way for later reforms, including the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

Artisitc: Tomb sculpture and memorial art emphasized mortality — corpses shown as decaying, wrapped in shrouds.

Economic: Landowners and nobility lost power and wealth, while towns and the merchant class began to rise.

Plague- How did cultural institutions respond to the plague?

Artistic & Institutional: Landowners and nobility lost power and wealth, while towns and the merchant class began to rise.

Religion: The loss of confidence in Church leadership helped pave the way for later reforms, including the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century.

How was late medieval society structured?

The Late Medieval Society was structured into three parts, the Clergy, Nobility, and Peasants/Commoners

Nobles: Were land owning aristocrats, knights, and feudal lords who acquired wealth from land ownership and grant protection and leadership for the peasants

Clergy: The group of people who prayed regularly usually coming in the form of monks, priests, nuns, popes, and bishops. They often had control over political influence/ education and morality as well as owning a great amount of land

Peasants/Commoners: The lowest tier of the estates, worked under nobles and supported them by providing food and labor. Most of them came in the form of free serfs and farmers.

What challenges did the medieval societal structured faced?

The Black Death disrupted every single level within the hierarchy, especially the lower class. Labor shortages meant peasants could demand higher wages or leave for better opportunities whilst whilst making the feudal system weaker.

Decline of Feudalism: Kings centralized power, reducing the independence of feudal lords.

The military role of knights declined due to new warfare technologies (e.g., longbow, gunpowder).

Monarchs began hiring professional armies and taxing towns directly, bypassing the nobility.

The Topics addressed in the Canterbury Tales

Morality: Many tales explore themes of greed, pride, jealousy, and the struggle between virtue and vice

Storytelling and Perspective: Each pilgrim tells a tale, creating a frame narrative that highlights diverse voices and viewpoints.

Chaucer uses this structure to show how people see the world differently based on their status, experience, and values.

What do Chaucer stories and his depictions of the pilgrims tell us about Medieval English society and culture?

Chaucer included all social classes and described how society was becoming more fluid.

Chaucer also paints characters with both flaws and virtues — they feel real and relatable.This humanism, even in a medieval context, reflects a growing interest in individual personalities and moral complexity.

The Renaissance

The Renaissance began in 14th-century Italy, particularly in cities like Florence, and gradually spread across Europe. It marked a major shift from the medieval worldview to one that celebrated human potential, classical learning, and individual expression.

The Early Figures of the Renaissance

The major figures included the Medici Family and Giovanni Boccaccio.

Cosimo de’ Medici was the First great patron; he supported libraries, scholars, and artists.

Lorenzo de’ Medici (“Lorenzo the Magnificent”) expanded patronage; supported Botticelli, Michelangelo; symbol of Renaissance Humanism.

Impact

Blended wealth, political power, and cultural leadership shaping the course of Renaissance art and thought.

Boccaccio pioneered realistic literature and advanced Humanist ideals through works like The Decameron.

In what context did the period known as the “Renaissance” begin and why?

After centuries dominated by medieval thought, scholars in 14th-century Italy rediscovered the literature, philosophy, and art of Ancient Greece and Rome.

This revival encouraged a new respect for human ability, beauty, and intellect, which became the foundation of Humanism.

What were the major beliefs of Humanist Philosophy in the Renaissance?

Humanists believed that humans were capable of great accomplishments through reason, learning, and effort.

They valued individual dignity and self-expression over medieval ideas of human sinfulness and weakness.

Major figures in Humanist Philosophy of the Reniassance and what did they profess?

. Francesco Petrarch (1304–1374)

Called the "Father of Humanism."

Stressed the importance of personal introspection, love of learning, and combining Christian faith with classical wisdom.

He also valued the dignity of individual emotion — seen in his famous Sonnets to Laura.

Giovanni Boccaccio (1313–1375)

Believed life's joys, struggles, and moral lessons could be found in everyday experiences.

Boccaccio emphasized realism and compassion for human weakness rather than idealized views of virtue.

What were some of the features of Petrarch sonnets and how was Shakespeare inspired by them?

Petrarch’s sonnets were about idealized, unattainable love, written in elegant, emotional language with a strict Italian form.

Shakespeare respected Petrarch’s tradition but modernized it — using earthier, broader themes, a new English form, and a more realistic, ironic tone about love and life.

Shakespeare developed the English (Shakespearean) sonnet, with a different structure:

Three quatrains (4-line units) and a final rhymed couplet (2 lines).

This allowed a more flexible and conversational tone.

What were some of the significant developments/qualities of Italian Renaissance Art?

The revival of classical Ideals, naturalism and realism, and use of perspective?

Who were some of the major figures of Italian Renaissance Art and what are they known for?

Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446)

Architect and engineer.

Known for: Inventing linear perspective and designing the dome of Florence Cathedral (Duomo) — a major engineering marvel.

Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475–1564)

Sculptor, painter, architect, poet.

Known for: Powerful, idealized human figures that express spiritual and physical strength.

Famous works: David (marble), Sistine Chapel ceiling, The Last Judgment.

What were some of the major artifacts of the Italian Renaissance and what are they known for?

The Dome of Florence Cathedral by Filippo Brunelleschi (completed 1436)

What it’s known for:

A massive, self-supporting dome — an engineering marvel of its time.

Symbolized Florence’s civic pride and revival of classical architectural forms.

Used linear perspective and innovative building techniques.

David by Donatello (c. 1440s)

What it’s known for:

The first free-standing nude statue since ancient Rome.

Showed a youthful, naturalistic David after defeating Goliath — a symbol of civic independence and divine favor.

How did the printing press of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries work?

Invented by Johannes Gutenberg around 1440 in Germany.

Individual metal letters (type) could be arranged and rearranged to form words and pages.

The type was inked, pressed onto paper, and then reused for different pages.

What are some short - and long term impacts of the printing press

Short term impacts: Rapid Spread of Knowledge:

Books could be produced faster and cheaper, making information more widely available.

Growth in Literacy:

More people learned to read and write, especially among the middle class.

Long-Term impacts:

The Protestant Reformation:

Printed pamphlets, Bibles, and treatises fueled religious debate and allowed new Christian denominations to arise.

Creation of a Knowledge-Based Society:

Books, newspapers, and pamphlets educated the public and created the foundation for modern democracies.

What were the causes of the Protestant Reformation?

Corruption in the Catholic Church

Clerical abuses were widespread:

Simony (buying and selling church offices),

Nepotism (favoring family members in church positions),

Absenteeism (clergy holding offices but not fulfilling duties),

And moral failings among priests and popes.

Sale of indulgences (paying money to reduce punishment for sins) caused widespread resentment — especially the abuses seen in campaigns like Johann Tetzel’s indulgence sales.

Who were some of the major figures of the Protestant Reformation and for what are they known for?

Martin Luther (1483–1546)

🇩🇪 Germany

Known for:

Writing the 95 Theses (1517) — criticizing the sale of indulgences and other Church abuses.

Teaching "justification by faith alone" (sola fide) — salvation comes only through faith, not good works or Church rituals.

Translating the Bible into German, making scripture accessible to ordinary people.

John Calvin (1509–1564)

🇫🇷 France / Switzerland

Known for:

Writing the Institutes of the Christian Religion — a clear, systematic theology of Protestant beliefs.

Teaching predestination — the idea that God predetermines who will be saved.

Establishing a strict, moral theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland.

What were some of the short and long term effects of the Protestant Reformation?

Short Term: Religious Division of Europe

Catholic vs. Protestant regions emerged.

New Protestant denominations formed:

– Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism, Anabaptism, etc.

Major wars and conflicts broke out (e.g., German Peasants' War, French Wars of Religion).

Long Term: Religious Wars and Settlements

Continued conflicts between Catholics and Protestants: – Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)

Led to the Peace of Westphalia (1648), which established the principle of religious tolerance and allowed rulers to choose their state’s religion.

What were some of the significant developments/qualities of Northern Renaissance art?

Attention to Detail and Realism

Extremely fine details in textures, fabrics, hair, and landscapes.

Artists used layered oil paints to create rich color and intricate surface detail.

Focused on naturalism — making subjects appear lifelike and tangible.

Who were some of the major figures of the Northern Renaissance and what are they known for?

Jan van Eyck (c. 1390–1441)

🇧🇪 Flanders (modern Belgium)

Known for:

Mastery of oil painting — rich color, fine detail, and light effects.

The Arnolfini Portrait is famous for its realism, symbolism, and mirror reflection.

Contribution: Elevated oil painting as a dominant medium in Northern Europe.

. Rogier van der Weyden (c. 1400–1464)

🇧🇪 Flanders

Known for:

Deeply emotional religious scenes.

Descent from the Cross — powerful depiction of grief with dramatic poses and fine detail.

Contribution: Blended realism with emotional expressiveness.

What were some of the major artifacts of Northern Renaissance art and what are they known for?

The Arnolfini Portrait (1434)

🇧🇪 Flanders

Known for:

Incredible realism and detail — textures of fabric, reflections in glass, fine hair strands.

Symbolism — dog (fidelity), fruit (fertility), single candle (presence of God).

Mirror reflection — van Eyck’s skill with perspective and light.

Significance: Showcases mastery of oil painting and Northern symbolic storytelling.

Descent from the Cross (c. 1435)

🇧🇪 Flanders

Known for:

Emotionally intense depiction of Christ’s removal from the cross.

Carefully arranged figures in compressed space to heighten drama.

Detailed drapery and facial expressions showing grief.

Significance: Blends emotional expressiveness with realistic detail.

What was the context/History of the Protestant Reformation in England in the sixteenth-century?

Henry VIII’s Break with Rome (1534)

Cause: Pope Clement VII refused to annul Henry’s marriage to Catherine of Aragon.

Act of Supremacy (1534): Henry declared himself Supreme Head of the Church of England (Anglican Church).

Motivations: Both personal (desire for a male heir) and political (greater control over church wealth and authority in England).

Who were some of the major figures of the English Protestant Reformation and what are they known for.

Henry VIII

Initiated English Reformation; established Church of England.

Thomas Cranmer (1489–1556)

Archbishop of Canterbury; authored Book of Common Prayer; Protestant theologian; executed under Mary I.

What were some of the hypothesized causes of the large number of people executed as “witches” in the Renaissance?

Religious Upheaval and Anxiety

The Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation created intense religious conflicts and fear of heresy.

Both Protestants and Catholics viewed witchcraft as a form of devil worship and a threat to Christian society.

Social and Economic Strain

Famine, plagues, warfare, and economic hardship led communities to scapegoat vulnerable people (especially poor, elderly women).

Fear of social disorder heightened accusations of witchcraft.