Linguistics final exam

Lexical semantics

Coneventional and arbitrary meaning of words

Compositional semantics

Meaning of sentences

Sense

Mental concept of words meaning

• ex: dictionary definition

Reference

Things in the real world that the word refers to

• ex: apple, orange, pear, are references for fruit

Hypernyms

• a board category that words (hyponyms) can be apart of

Hyponyms

A proper subset

Truth value

Entailment

A relationship between the truth values of a sentences propositions

• a bigger sentence entails a smaller sentence

• If A is true, then B is true. A entails B.

Logical entailment

A entails B for logical reasons, requires no prior knowledge

• I ate an red apple

• I ate an apple

Word specific entailment

A entails b because of world knowledge or lexical meaning

• I am from Oregon

• I am from the U.S

Mutual entailment

A entails B and B entails A

• I am a woman

• I am a female

List notation

Defining a set by listing out the elements

• ex: birds = {goose, duck, eagle}

Predicate notation

Defining a set in overarching terms/ symbols

• ex: birds = {x | x is a bird}

• The symbol “|” stands for “such that”

venn diagram

Shows what parts overlap in a set

Cardinality

The number of elements in a set, shown with vertical bars

• ex: | A | is cardinality of A

Null set

A set with no elements in it

• written as: {}, or ø

Equality

• A set relation that shows that two sets are identical

• Symbol: =

Subset

• a set relation that has every element of their set in another set, can be identical

• ex: A is a subset of B, if every element of B is in A

• Symbol:

Proper subset

• a set relation where all the elements of one set are in another set, but they cannot be identical

• A is a subset of B if all the elements in A is in B, and B has extra elements

• Symbol

Is symbol

Symbol that means “Is a”

Union

• symbol: U

• Set operation that involves two sets combining that produce a new set

• Includes all elements of old and new set

Intersection

• symbol:

• Set operation that only includes the overlapping part of 2 new sets

• Middle section on vent diagram

Difference

• Symbol: -

• ex: A - B means “belongs to A but not B”

• Set operation that only involves one side of then vent diagram

Complement

• symbol: ‘

• Ex: A’ → everything but A

• Everything except that one specific set

principle of semantic Compositionality

The meaning of a sentnce is determined by the meanings of the indidvual words, and the grammar used to combine them (syntax)

Pragmatics

The study of language in context, studied implied ,meaning

Presuppositions

inferences that can be made from a sentence

• ex: i had lunch → presupposition: i exist

Utterances

Language spoken in a particular context

Definite expression

Presupposition trigger that presuppose the existence of something

• my boyfriend likes cake → i have a boyfriend

Iterative expressions

Presupposition trigger that presuppose the repetition of something

• ex: she came here again → presupposition: she was there before

Change of state verbs

Presupposition triggers via verbs that imply change in an action or state

• ex: she stopped working our → presupposition: she used to previously work our

Factive verbs

Presupposition triggers that refer to someone’s feelings or knowledge about something, introducing a dependent clause (presupposition) and main clause (proposition)

• ex: She regrets submitting her paper late. → dependant clause: her paper was late/ main clause: she regrets it.

Clefts

Presupposition triggers that take simple sentences and add a dependant clause to it

• X Y’ed → It was X that Y’ed, X was who Y’ed, etc

• ex: I like Pie → Pie is what i like to eat.

→ presupposition: someone likes pie.

→ main clause: i am that person

Common ground

The idea of a consistent figure/ topic while having a conversation, preventing the need to reference it every time

• ex; referring to a topic as “it, that, or what” during a conversation

Presupposition accomodation

Assuming a presupposition is true

• sounds reasonable

Presupposition failure

A sentence that has a presupposition that seems false.

• ex: there is a Martian in my house.

• Ex: Did u stop embezzling money?

Cooperative principle

Participants in a conversation tend to say what’s appropriate for the situation and goals of the conversation.

Maxim of quality

Be truthful, don’t say what u think is false

• we assume other peopel are telling the truth in convos

Maxim of quantity

Give as much information as required, do not give too cut or too little

• ex: how was ur exam? “Good, i think it went well,” compared to “fine” and “good it went well i think …………………..”

Maxim of relevance

Say whats relevant to the question being asked, even if there is another answer that is technically correct

• ex: where do u live now? “I live north of here” compared to “on earth”

Maxim of manner

Say things in the correct order, try to avoid confusion

• ex: “i’m sick and i went to the doctors.’ Compared to “i went to the doctors and i’m sick”

Cancelling implicatures

Sentences that cancel out previous presuppositions

• ex: how is Sam’s boyfriend? “Oh she is single now.”

→ implies that they broke up/ Sam doesnt have a bf

Reinforces

Parts of the conversation that reinforce presuppositions

Ex: how is Sam’s boyfriend? He’s good.

→ implies Sam still has a boyfriend.

Segment/ phones

Discrete individual sounds represented by IPA

• ex: vowel consonant, glide

i (cardinal vowel)

• sounds like eee in bee

• High Front unrounded vowel

E (cardinal vowel)

Sounds like ay in “bay”

• mid front unrounded vowel

A

• sounds ahhh

• Low central unrounded vowel

O (cardinal vowel)

• sounds like oh

• Mid back rounded vowel

U (cardinal vowel)

• sounds like oo in boo

• High back rounded vowel

Glide

Letters like y or w, resembles vowels and consonants

Diphthong

Two vowels that are combined into 1 sound

• ex: oj → sounds like oy

What do vowels have that consonants do not?

Constant airflow and voicing

• tounge height, tounge blackness, lip rounded nests

Place of articulation

Location of obstruction in vocal tract

• where?

• Columns in IPA consonant chart

Manner of articulation

Type of obstruction

• What?

• Rows on consonant chart

Larynx

An organ in throat that vibrates, helps create sounds

Consonants

Letters with total or partial obstruction in vocal tract, blocking or restricting airflow

Voiced

• left side of consonant chard, on IPA

• Larynx is vibrating, creating vocals

Voiceless

• Consonants where air passes freely, larynx is not vibrating

• Right of IPA consonants

Labials

Place of articulation Consonants/ words said with lips

• ex: tofu, pa, vote

Coronals

Place of articulation Consonants/words said with the front part of the mouth

• Ex: too, now

Dentals

Coronals said with tounge, tip, and teeth

• ex: think, that

Alveolar

Place of articulation Coronals said with tongue, tip, blade, and alveolar ridge

• ex: tea, day

Post-alveolars

Place of articulation where Consonants said with tongue, blade, and area behind alveolar ridge

• Ex: shake, vision

Retroflexes

Place of articulation Consonants said with the tongue tip arched backwards

• ex: the d in diya

Plosive/ stop

Complete obstruction, release with burst

Fricative

Manner of articulation, Narrow obstruction, hissing sound

• ex: f, v, s, z, h

Affricate

Complete obstruction, release to narrow obstruction

Nasal

Consonants that Complete obstruction in mouth, air flows through nose

Ex: m,n

Lateral

Obstruction on centerline of mouth, air flows on the sides

• ex: l

Approximant

Narrow obstruction, now harrow enough for hissing

Ex: j,w

Tap/flap/thrill

Very brief obstruction, repeated for thrills

Obstruents

Plosives, affricate am fricatives (greater airflow)

Sonorant

Nasals, laterals, approximants (less airflow)

Rhotics

R sounds

Liquid

Laterals + rhortics, l and r sounds

Phoneme

A set of sounds that speakers of a language treat as being the same

Allophone

Each individual sound that’s apart of the phoneme

Phonemic contrast

Phonemes can sound different, allophones cannot

• the same allophone wont sound different in various words (t in tie and stop) , but phonemes can (tie vs die)

Do all phonemes sound the same in all languages?

Each language have different phonological inventories and differnet phonotactics, meaning they sound and act differently in each language.

Phonemic analysis

• Allophones occur in complimentary distribution, they can never be in the same place in the same word

• Phonemes occur in contrastive distribution ,they can be in the same place in different words

Minimal pairs

A pair of words that differ only by one sound

-ex: pat and bat, ship and sheep

Assimilation

A sound segment changes to become more similar to another nearby sound segment

• ex: cats (kats) and dogs (dogs).

Dissimilation

A sound that changes to become less similar to another segment

• ex: kindergarten (German) → kindergarten (American) The “t’ sound dissimilated to a “d” sound

Insertion

A sound segment is added to a word

• English glide insertion: I am sounds like “i yam”

Deletion

A sound is removed from a word

• ex: rock and roll sounds like rock n roll

Strengthening

Sounds become more strong in sonority

Weakening

Words become weaker in sonority