FORENSICS

Top down method

1. Data assimilation

2. Crime classification - organised or disorganised

3. Crime reconstruction

4. Profile generation

Bottom up method

1. Interpersonal coherence - there is consistency between the way offenders interact with their victims and with others in their everyday lives

2. Time and place - the time and location of an offender’s crime will communicate something about their own place of employment/residence

3. Criminal characteristics

4. Criminal career

5. Forensic awareness - offenders with an understanding of the polic investigation will likely have had previous encounters with the justice system

John Duffy - Rainway Rapist

Before Canter used the bottom-up method, he was 1 of 2000 suspects, afterwards he was 1 of 2

Lombroso (1876)

Examined the features and measurements of nearly 4000 criminals, as well as the skulls of 400 dead criminals. Found that common traits for criminals were: sloping brow (indicated low IQ), pronounced jaw, high cheekbones, large ears and extra nipples, toes or fingers. He concluded that these characteristics indicated such people were more primitive in an evolutionary sense; he stated that individuals were not responsible for their actions, as they could not be blamed for their innate, inherited physiology.

Lombroso evaluation

• Limitation: didn’t use a control group. So its likely those features were coincidental and can be found with any group of that size. Goring (1913) attempted to replicate findings using a control, and found no significant differences.

• Limitation: Study of its time

• Limitation: Doesn’t fit with modern day judicial system. If it were correct, criminals should not be held accountable for their actions, so shouldn’t be sent to prison as it was no fault of their own; it was their ‘fate’

Christiansen (1977)

Genetic explanation: twin study - examined over 3500 twin pairs in Denmark and identified concordance rates of criminal behaviour: monozygotic 35% male, 21% female - dizygotic 13% male, 8% female. Concordance rates are low, indicating some environmental factors in criminal behaviour.

Mednick et al. (1984)

Genetic explanations: adoption study - concordance analysis of 14,427 Danish adoptees. 13.5% NCP (A+B). 14.7% at least 1 CP (A), NCP (B). 20% at least 1 CP (B), NCP (A). 24.5% at least 1 CP (A+B).

Neural: Amygdala

Part of the limbic system, which is regarded as an older region of the brain in an evolutionary sense. So, this structure has links to emotion regulation and aggression.

Potegal et al. (1999)

Neural: amygdala - found that stimulating the amygdala of hamsters led to an increase in aggressive behaviour.

Raine et al. (1997)

Neural: used PET scans to create 3D images of th functional processes happening in the brains of 41 murderers (pleading not guilty by reason of insanity) and 41 control. Murderers showed reduced glucose metabolism in the prefrontal cortex, superior parietal gyrus and the corpus callosum, and asymmetrical activity in two hemispheres. So, some of their brain processes were dysfunctional. So, supports link between brain dysfunction and predisposition to violent acts.

Raine (2009)

Neural: amygdala - compared 27 psychopaths to 32 non-psychopaths. Found 18% reduction in the volum of the amygdala and thinning of the cortex in psychopaths.

Bowlby maternal deprivation

Psychodynamic explanations: 44 juvenile thieves - of 14 thieves showing affection less psychopathy, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers during infancy. In control, only 2 had maternal deprivation.

Farmington et al.

Evaluation: in a 40 year longitudinal study, they identified most important risk factors at age 8-10 for later offending. They included: risk taking personality, family history of criminality, poverty, poor parenting. This shows a combined approach can give a fuller picture of the causes of offending.

Differential association theory

Sutherland - Criminal behaviour is learned rather than inherited through association with intimate personal groups. Criminality arises from to factors: learning atttudes towards rime (social transmission of values, motivations and rationalisations) and learning of specific criminal acts. Learning is directional - for or against crime. If number of pro-criminal attitudes outweigh anti-criminal, then a person becomes an offender. Criminal behaviour is learned through same proccessses as other behaviour is. Reoffending may be due to socialisation in prison.

DA theory evaluation

• Limitation - overly deterministic. Not everyone exposed to criminal influences go on to offend. So, theory may stereotype people from impoverished backgrounds as unavoidably criminal. So, may be environmentally deterministic.

• Limitation - ignores biological side. Diathesis stress model better. Involves biological as well as environmental - interactionist.

Stages of moral development - Kohlberg

1. Level 1 - pre-conventional.

2. Level 2 - conventional

3. Level 3 - post-conventional

Hostile attribution bias

Refers to the extent in which an individual interprets actions of others as hostile. (When someone thinks that other people hate them)

Cognitive bias

Errors in people’s information processing system characterised by faulty thinking. Criminals have faulty thinking and interpret their behaviour and justify their actions using it.

Cognitive distortions

Irrational thought patterns which give people a distorted view of reality, affecting behaviour.

Heller et al

Cognitive explain: Used CBT to reduce cognitive distortions in young men in Chicago. Participants who had attended 13 one hour sessions had a 44% reduction in arrests compared to control. Can rehabilitate people

Ireland (2000)

Dealing with offending: sample of 50 prisoners completed anger management course while control group (37) assessed w. no course. Included cognitive behavioural interview and the wing behavioural checklist (WBC) and the anger management assessment questionnaire. All who had completed course showed a decrease in anger.

Keen (2000)

Dealing with offfending: anger management- found positive outcomes through use of NAMP (national anger management package) with young male offenders. Despite this, he also found that there were practical issues with encouraging young offenders to take part fully.

Anger management procedure

1. Cognitive preparations - reflects on past anger and triggers - aim to identify irrationality

2. Skilll aquisition - offenders introduced to range of techniques to deal

3. Application practice- role-play. (Requires commitment)

Lovell et al. (2002)

Recidivism: identified 70% of sample diagnosed as mentally ill upon release reoffended. Suggest that judgement can be skewed.

Custodial sentencing aims

• Incapacitation

• Rehabilitation

• Retribution

• Deterrence

Dooley (1990)

Custodial sentencing: suicide amongst prison population is four times higher than rest of society.

Peterson et al. (1981)

Custodial sentencing: psychological effect - estimates that 8-10% of criminals are responsible for 50% of all crime.

Blackburn

Token economies have little rehabilitative value as any changes are list upon release. Rewards offenders receives from breaking law (eg. Group status) may be more powerful than abiding by token economy.

Shapland et al. (2007)

This 7 year government funded project clocluded that every £1 spent on restorative justice would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending.