Families and households

Define Family

Group of people related by blood, marriage, civil partnership or adoption

Define Household

One person living alone or a group of people living in the same address

Define Nuclear Family

Traditional family which consists of a husband and wife and 2 children living together

Define Extended Family

Includes relatives all living under the same roof

Define Beanpole Family

Families with multiple generations of older people living in the same house. Often found in South Asian households

Define Same-sex Family

Where the couple is in a homosexual relationship, living together.

Define Patriarchal Family

Family that is dominated by the man

Define Matriarchal Family

Family that is dominated by the woman

Define Blended/Reconstituted Family

Where 1 or both partners have (a) child(ren) from previous relationships living w/ them

Define Symmetrical Family

A family where domestic labour & authority is shared between the male & female

Define Lone Parent Family

One parent & a dependent child(ren) living together

Define Monogamy

Marriage between 2 people. Mostly in Europe, USA & Christian culture

Define Serial Monogamy

A series of monogamous marriages. Mostly in high rates of divorce and remarriage societies

Define Polygamy

Marriage to more than one partner at the same time

Define Polygyny

Marriage between one husband and 2 or more wives

Define Polyandry

Marriage between one wife and 2 or more husbands

Define Arranged Marriage

Marriage arranged by the parents to match their children up with partners of similar backgrounds & status. Found in Indian & Hindu ethics groups

Define Civil Partnership

Provides legal recognition and equal treatment to same-sex couples. 

Define domestic division of labour

Roles that men and women play in relation to household chores, childcare and paid work

What did Warde & Hetherington find

Wives are 30x more likely to have done the washing whereas husband was 4x more likely to have washed the car

What did functionalist Parsons say about division of labour

He suggested that traditional nuclear families has a clear division of labour:

• Husband carries out the instrumental role (provides & is a breadwinner)

• Wife carries out the expressive role (socialising children & meets familys emotional needs, homemaker)

He argues that this division is due to biological differences, women are naturally caregivers & have the maternal instincts to nurture whereas men are natural providers. 

Criticisms for Parsons views

• Evidence of men taking greater share in domestic tasks than wives

• Greater promotion for couples to share domestic labour equally

What did Elizabeth Bott do?

Identified 2 types of conjugal roles within marriage: 

• Segregated conjugal roles (couples have seperate roles, breadwinner vs homemaker & separate leisure activities)

• Joint conjugal roles (couple share the tasks & spend leisure time together)

What did Young & Willmott do?

Adopted a march of progress view (society is changing over time), argue that domestic roles are becoming more equal and democratic!

They argue that marriages have become more ‘symmetrical’, the roles have become more similar. 

Women are not just the homemaker, they also go out to work, men help with housework more, couples spend leisure time together rather than segregated.

They found that this was more common in younger couples, more affluent and socially isolated

AO3 - Why are marriages becoming more symmetrical?

• Changes in women's position - rise of feminist attitudes, women want to focus on education and making a living

• Geographical mobility - more couples are living away from the community they grew up in. breaking social boundaries.

• New technology - such as robotic hoovers and easy to use DIY equipment. 

• Higher standards of living. 

AO3 - How did feminists reject Young & Willmotts argument

• Men and women remain unequal in marriages. Women are suppressed and have to complete most of domestic labour. The family is patriarchal. 

• Ann Oakley (1974) suggests that husbands ‘helped’ their wives once a week by making breakfast etc. Not symmetrical! In her study only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in household. 

• She found that when fathers helped with childcare, it would be to play with them. This meant mothers lost the rewards of playing with their children.

• Warde & Hetherington found wives were 30x more likely to do washing, husband 4x more likely to wash the car

• Husbands would only carry out ‘female tasks' when partner wasnt around

What did Duncombe & Marsden do?

Coined the idea of the double/triple shift

What is the double/triple shift?

Women often have to do paid work, unpaid domestic work and emotional labour

What did Ann Oakley say about women doing work?

They have a dual burden - Paid work & housework

Define march of progress

Adopts an optimistc view. More women are going to work →men becoming more involved w/ housework & childcare duties

What did Gershuny do?

Carried out a study and found that women who worked full time had more equal divisions of labour at home.

AO3 - Contemporary evidence, against march of progress

a 2023 British Social Attitudes Survey reported by BBC News found that while over three-quarters of people believed domestic labour should be shared equally, around two-thirds said women still do more than their fair share of washing and ironing, and most said women continue to do the majority of cooking and cleaning. change in attitude but not change in action.

Feminists view on if couples are becoming more equal?

Adopt a pessimistic view. Argue that women now carry ‘a duel burden’ (paid work + housework)

Duncombe and Marsden : triple shift

AO3 - Evidence to support feminist views

Ferri & Smith found that fathers took responsibility for children in <4% of households

Dex & Ward found that fathers were highly involved in their children’s lives but only 1% of fathers took main responsibility when they were sick

Braun, Vincent and Ball found that only 3/70 families they interviewed had fathers as the main carer

What did Crompton & Lyonette do?

They wanted to research into why women continue to do majority of domestic labour. 2 reasons found:

1. Economic or material reason - it seems more rational for women to carry out domestic labour as men earn more.

2. Ideological or gender construction theory - inequality bc of gender roles. Women do housework bc that is what society expects them to do.

Supported by evidence of gender pay gap despite Equal Pay Act legislation.

Evidence to support economic & material reason (why theres still gender division in labour, Crompton & Lyonette)

2016, the gender pay gap was 9.4% →suggests men earn more, therefore women should carry out most of domestic labour

Evidence to support ideological & gender construction theory (why theres still gender division in labour, Crompton & Lyonette)

Gershuny - found that couple whose parents had equal relationships were more likely to share domestic labour. → shows parental role models are important to remove negative stereotypes.

Man Yee Kan - found that younger men do more domestic work which suggests a generational shift in behaviour

What did Barrett & McIntosh do?

Found that:

• Men gain more from women’s domestic work than they give back in financial support

• The financial support men give their wives often have ‘strings’ attached & are unpredictable

• Men usually make final decisions about spending in the family

Research showed family members didnt share resources equally, like in LIH women often denied their own needs to make ends meet.

What did Paul and Vogler find?

Found 2 types of control over family income:

• Allowance system - men give wife an allowance of budget, man had majority of ctrl of family income

• Pooling - both partnershave access to income & joint responsibility

Who did Pahl & Vogler and Hardill find makes the financial decisions

Pahl & Vogler - despite increased pooling systems, men usually make financial decisions

Hardill - Man’s career took priorit when making decision such as moving house for job

Edgell’s study of professional couples found that…

Most important decisions (finance) were made by mainly husband

Important decisions (children) were made jointly

Less important decisions (home decor) were made by wife

Edgell: the reason why men have the ‘final say’ is bc they earn more

AO3 for Edgell ‘inequalities on decision making → men earn more’

Feminists : It’s bc of the patriarchy. Society ensures that men dominate as that is ingrained within society & its mentality e.g. canalisation + verbal appellation

What did Smart find?

In same-s3x couples, they attached no meaning to who was in ctrl of the money in the relationship, didn’t result in inequality bc they didn’t see it that way. Found that there’s more freedom in same-s3x couples, maybe cause they don’t conform to typical gender norms

Domestic Violence stats

80% of women aged 18+ have experienced s3xual harrassment in public space rising to 97% for women aged 18-24

What is domestic violence?

Domestic violence, also called domestic abuse, includes physical, emotional and s3xual abuse in couple relationships or between family members.

What is the dark figure of crime?

Not everyone may report their crime so although we have the official statistics, they may not be entirely accurate because of the cases which are never reported. People may not report as they are scared of not being taken seriously, or by being punished by their abuser.

Sociologists argue that Domestic violence is:

1. Far too widespread to be just the work of ‘some disturbed indivs’. In 2013 Crime Survey found that 2 mill ppl had reported domestic violence

2. Does not occur randomly. There is a social pattern - mainly men against women

Police stats & Offical Gov stats for DV

March 2016, >1 mill DA related cases were recorded by the police. 41% of this were criminal offences. 78% were vilent offences & 3% were s3xual offences

Sociolgists argue that the stats for DV may not be accurate bc:

• Victims are scared to report, fear of being abused again or bc the police won’t take it seriously

• Police may be reluctant to revord, investigate and prosecute. They assume the women is free to leave the family and they wish to stay away from family affairs

Why might men be afraid to report DV against them?

Jordan Woods case - One of first females to go to prison for DV in UK. She scalded & stabbed her boyfriend and only got a 7 & ½ year sentence

Sociolgists say there are 2 main explanations for DA:

1. Materialist explanation

2. Radical feminist explanation

What is the materialist explanation for DA (Wilkinson & Pickett)

Focus on economic factors (inequalities in income & housing)

Wilkinson & Pickett : DV is results of ‘stress on family members caused by social inequality.’

Having a low income or living in an overcrowded setting can increase stress levels, increases risk of conflict

AO3 for materialist explanation of DV (Wilkinson & Pickett)

• + Useful in linking social inequality & DV as DV occurs more in lower social classes

• - Doesn’t explain why women are the main victims

• - Marx Fems also agree that social inequality is what causes DV but explains how women are ‘takers of sht’ - Ansley. : DV is result of capitalism. Men are exploited at work so they come home and take their anger out on women.

What is the Radical feminist explanation for DV (Dobash & Dobash)

: The patriarchal family is key to women’s exploitation.

Dobash & Dobash found that husbands would become more violent to their wives when their authority or masulinity was challenged e.g. wife ‘ why home late?’

Men = the exploitation & oppression of women

Role of fmaily is to ensure patriarchy remains and this explains why most DV is committed by men.

AO3 for Radical feminst explanation of DV (Dobash & Dobash)

• - Rad fems ignore that most men are opposed to DV

• - Rad fems ignore female DV or child abuse e.g. Jordan Woods

• - Fail to consider ‘intersectionality’. Not all women experience DV. Some more likely than others, like young women, low social class, low income, long term disabilities

What do sociologists mean when they refers to childhood as a social construct?

Childhood is created and defined by society. Not natural and has been created by humans. It differs between times, places and cultures

In western society how is it argued that children are different form adults? (in what ways)

• Physically

• Psychologically

• Emotionally

↳ believed they should be protected, nurtured & socialised

What did Pilcher say?

Within the western notion of childhood the most important feature is the idea of ‘seperateness’ - clear distinction between children and adults.

What does Wagg argue?

“… There is no single universal childhood, experienced by all. So childhood isnt ‘natural’…” →anque humans develop physically in the same way, diff cultures define childhood differently

What did Benedict do?

Comparative study on childhoods

Argues that childhood is a social construction (not fixed) that varies across cultures, particularly in pre-industrialisted societies compared to western ones. There is no clear division between children and adults in pre-industrialised societies. 

Found in pre-industrialisation:

1. Children took responsibility from a young age

2. Parents places less value on children showing obedience to authority

3. S3xual behaviour exhibited by children are viewed differently

What did Punch find to support Benedict?

Punch found that in Bolivian culture children from the age of five were to take on responsibility in the household.

What did Firth find to support Benedict?

In Tikopia culture (Western Pacific) doing as you were told was granted by the child & not expected from an adult

What did Malinowski find to support Benedict?

In Trobriand tribe, when children began to explore their s3xuality and s3xual desires, the adults were interested

What is globalisation of western childhood?

International humanitarian aid agencies have begun to impose their understanding of childhood onto other societies and cultures. E.g. campiaging against child marriage, explitation, labour. Not considering how it might be the norm for that culture.

What did Aries say

During the Middle Ages the idea of childhood did not exist as we see it now. Although they were physically different from adults they did not have different needs from adults.

• As soon as they stopped being breast fed they were seen as mini adults.

• Carried out similar roles

• Punished similarly

• Parental sttitudes toward children were different

: Modern notions of childhood began emerging in 13th century. Things starting changing:

• Schools

• Clothing

• Hanbooks - society more child-centred

Why has position of childhood changed

1. Laws & Legislations - protect children now

2. Complusory schooling - 1880 Education Act 5-10 had to stay in school

3. Child protection & Legislation - 1889 The Prevention of Crueltly to Children Act. 1989, Chilren Act was released

4. Growth in idea of children’s rights - 1989 United Nations Convention of the Rights of the Child ‘Children have the right to healthcare, education, protection form abuse’

5. Declinign family size & infant mortality rates - children are now an economic liability (UK average cost of raising a child to 18 is £166,000 for couple)

6. Child Development & Medical Knowledge - Donzelot observes theories of child development came about

7. Child policies - Minimum ages for some activies. E.g. smoking, drinking, s3x

What did Postman say?

That childhood is disappearing as there are growing tends towards : 

• adults and children clothes becoming similar

• Cases of children committing adult crimes.

• A fall in print culture and a rise in tv culture.

What did Opie say? (AO3 for Postman)

That childhood IS NOT disappearing, there is still evidence of a separate children’s culture. E.g. supervised games, helicopter parenting. Postman over emphasises the television culture, so many otra factors that have influenced the development of childhood.

What did Jenks say

Childhood is not disappearing. Society is changing from modern to post-modern society. : In modern society adult relationships were more stable SE now divorce is more common →feelings of insecurity. : Results in adults becoming more occupied in their child’s security & safety by wanting to constatly protect them → More surveillance of children.

AO3 against Jenks

Little evidence

Over-generalising. Families are diverse in contemporary society. He assumes all children are in the same position. Not all couples are divorced.

What do March of progress thinkers think about how the position of children has developed

: Position of children in society are steadily improving as children are more:

• Valued

• Protected

• Educated

• Have better rights/health

Hay higher living standards & smaller family sizes → Parents can afford to provide for children’s needs, Therefore… society has become chil-centered

• Family has become ‘child-centered’

• Parents now invest emotionally in their children

• Have high aspirations for children

• Consult children on family decision

Conflict view to March of progress abt change of position of children (Marx, Fems)

: Society is based on conflict between diff social groups. Some groups have more power than others.

: The March of Progress view on modern childhood is false bc it ignores inequalities. Critise on 2 things:

1. Inequalities among children. E.g. Opportunites & risks

2. Inequalities between children & adults - Children experience oppression & control, not protection.

What did Palmer say?

Due to technological advancements and rapid progression children have been emotionally, physically and intellectually damaged - toxic childhood

What did Gittens say

Uses the term age patriarchy to refer to the inequalities between children and adults. He argues men often dominate over their wives and children

What did Humphrey & Thiara’s study find?

That 50/200 women left their abusive partners because they feared for their children lives

What did Hockey & James find

Children are oppressed in their familial relationships so they may ‘act up’ to resist their restrictions.

Some sociologist: children can also ‘act down’. E.g. baby talking

What did Mayall say (new sociology of childhood)

That if we perceive childhood as a passive thing and a social construct, we see children as ‘socialisation projects’ rather than as human beings