ap bio main terms and concepts

properties of water

cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, high specific heat, universal solvent, capillary action

elements of each macromolecule

carbohydrates and lipids CHO, proteins CHON, nucleic acids CHONP

ionic bonds

formed between two atoms when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to the other

covalent bond

Formed when electrons are shared between atoms. If the electrons are shared equally between the atoms, the bond is called non-polar covalent. If the electrons are shared unequally, the bond is called polar covalent.

dehydration synthesis

when two molecules bond. A water molecule is lost in the reaction, and a larger compound is formed.

hydrolysis

when water is added to break down a polymer into monomers

what are proteins composed of?

amino group (–NH2), a carboxyl group (–COOH), a hydrogen, and an R-group

what makes amino acids hydrophobic

methyl CH3 group

structures of the protein (the levels)

• primary structure is a linear chain sequence of amino acids held together by peptide bonds

  • the last thing remaining when a protein denatures

• secondary structure is created btwn the carboxyl grp and amino group

• tertiary structure is the overall 3D shape of the protein composed of many interactions btwn the side chains/groups of various amino acids; these bonds stabilize the protein

• quaternary structure is the overall protein structure that is frm aggregation of polypeptide subunits

what are nucleotides made up of?

nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar (pentose), phosphate group(s)

pyramidines

nitrogenous base: pyrimidines are one ring with 6 atoms (CTU)

purines

nitrogenous base: purines are one ring with six atoms bonded to one ring with 5 atoms (AG)

why do cells need to be small?

Cells need to be smaller to achieve a greater surface area to volume ratio so the exchange of materials is more efficient

endosymbiotic theory and evidence

theory where the mitochondria and chloroplasts are prokaryotes that were engulfed by eukaryotes evidenced by:

• mitochondria and chloroplasts are the same shape and size as prokaryotes

• organelles have their own DNA, double membranes, and ribosomes

ribosome

synthesize protein according to the mRNA sequence within the cell

golgi apparatus

(UPS) warehouse of receiving, sorting, manufacturing, and shipping proteins

mitochondria

folds to enhance the productivity of cellular respiration, allows more ATP to be made and where electron transport and ATP synthesis occur

lysosome

trashcan to digest damaged cell parts or macromolecules using enzymes

plant vs animal cells

plant cells have a cell wall, large vacuole, and have chloroplasts

passive transport

movement of molecules from a high to low concentration, without the use of energy

diffusion

type of passive transport in which small nonpolar molecules (O₂ , N₂ , CO₂) pass freely

facilitated diffusion

type of passive transport that involves transport proteins. typically for transferring hydrophilic molecules

active transport

movement of molecules from a low to high concentration (against the concentration) using energy (ATP)

osmosis

diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

hypotonic, hypertonic, isotonic

• hypotonic is more solute, less solvent

• isotonic is equal concentrations

• hypertonic is less solute, more solvent

enzymes

catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions that often end in -ase and changes in shape cause denaturation

what affects enzyme optimum range

pH levels, temperature, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and inhibitors

catabolic and anabolic reactions

catabolic break down which is exergonic, anabolic is build which is endergonic

photosynthesis

6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

split into light reactions in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast and the calvin cycle in the stroma of the chloroplast

light reactions vs calvin cycle

light reactions make ATP and calvin cycle uses that ATP to make carbs (glucose) to power cellular respiration

cellular respiration

glucose → glycolysis → pyruvate → krebs cycle or fermentation

which line represents hydrolysis and phosphorylation

Line 1 represents ATP hydrolysis, and line 4 represents phosphorylation of a substrate

negative feedback

maintains homeostasis for a particular condition by regulating physiological processes

• basically reverses stuff

positive

positive feedback - amplifies processes (keeps going until the wanted condition is reached)

• ex: giving birth (hormones are continuously secreted until baby is born)

signal transduction pathway steps

1. reception detection is signal molecule coming from outside of cell

2. transduction convert signal to a form that can bring about a cellular response

3. response specific cellular response to signal molecule

the cell cycle phases

interphase and mitosis

interphase phases

0. G₀ - also called cell arrest, where cell division no longer occurs, as cells can reenter division with appropriate signals (they are nondividing)

   • not all cells undergo this phase

1. G₁ - cell growth, cell increases in size

2. S - synthesis, copies of DNA are made via replication

3. G₂ - cytoplasmic components (organelles) are replicated in preparation for division

cell cycle checkpoints

• G₁ Checkpoint occurs at the end of the G₁ phase

  • cell size, nutrient, growth factor, and DNA damage check

• G₂ Checkpoint occurs at the end of G₂ phase

  • DNA replication and damage check

• M-spindle Checkpoint checks for fiber attachment to chromosome

mitosis phases

• Prophase

  • nuclear envelope disappears

  • DNA coils into chromosomes

  • fibers move chromosomes toward the center of the cell

• Metaphase

  • fibers align chromosomes at the center of the wall

• Anaphase

  • fibers separate chromosomes to chromatids

  • chromosomes separate at the centromere

• Telophase

  • nuclear envelope reappears

  • chromosomes begin to uncoil

• Cytokinesis

  • the actual splitting of the cell into two new daughter cells

DNA vs RNA

plasmids

are small extra chromosomal, double stranded DNA molecules

DNA replication

• topoisomerase - relaxes the supercoil at the replication fork

  • replication fork - the area the 2 strands separate

• DNA helicase unwinds (unzips) the DNA strand

• DNA polymerase synthesizes new strands (the builder)

  • needs RNA primers to START synthesis

  • attaches to 3’ of template strand

  • builds strand in 5’-3’ direction

• DNA ligase joins the okazaki fragments together on the lagging strand (works as “glue”!)

transcription

process where the enzyme directs the formation of the RNA molecule

translation

process of generating polypeptides using the info carried on a mRNA molecule

crossing over

where non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments

law of segregation

describes the inheritance of genes and traits on different generations

null hypothesis

states that there is no relationship or difference between the two groups of data

incomplete dominance

when neither allele is fully dominant and offspring expresses a new phenotype (usually a mixture)

ex. red and white make pink flower

codominance

two alleles that effect phenotype are both expressed

ex. blood type AB

nondisjunction

failure of chromosomes to fully separate during the formation of gametes

what is evolution influenced by?

environmental stability, genetic variation, adaptations, and fitness

convergent evolution

process in which similar environmental conditions select for similar traits in different populations or species

genetic drift

random change in the frequency of a particular allele within a population (nonselective)

gene flow

movement of individuals between populations causing an exchange of alleles between populations

bottleneck effect

type of genetic drift in which a population is reduced by a large amount often due to natural disasters or competition

homologous vs analogous structures

homologous are variations in a structure that was present in a common ancestor while analogous are unrelated organisms that have similar traits

speciation

creation of new species

allopatric vs sympatric speciation

allopatric is evolution of new species due to geographical isolation while sympatric is due to reproductive isolation

reproductive isolation

prevents gene flow between populations

prezygotic and post zygotic barriers

prezygotic barrier list

prevent production of a fertilized egg

• habitat isolation is where species occupy different habitats and rarely come in contact

• temporal isolation is where species breed during different times of day, seasons or years

• behavioral isolation is where species have different courtship behaviors/mate preferences

• mechanical isolation is where reproductive structural differences prevent successful mating and reproduction

• gamete isolation is where sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species

postzygotic barriers

barriers that prevent a zygote from developing into a viable, fertile offspring

niche

extinction provides newly available niches which describes the role an organism plays within its environment

endotherms vs exotherms

• endotherms use thermal energy from metabolism to maintain body temperature

• exotherms lack these, relying on behaviors and environment

interactions: mutualism, commensalism, parasitism, herbivory,

Symbiosis - when 2 or more species live in direct contact with one another:

• Parasitism: (+/-) when one organism (parasite)
  derives nourishment from another (host)

• Mutualism: (+/+) when both organisms benefit from
  the relationship

• Commensalism: (+/0) when one organism benefits
  and the other is neither harmed nor benefited

Herbivory: (+/-) relationship where one organism
eats part of a plant or alga

trophic cascade

the negative effect the removal/decrease of a key species has on tropic levels

niche partitioning

decrease in competition over limited resources because of each species accessing resources differently