THE BEAST AP PSYCH 2025

Hypothesis

testable prediction implied by theory, which explains

Falsifiable

the ability for an idea, theory, hypothesis to be proven incorrect or correct

Operational Definition

detailed, direct quantity description of a variable, makes study able to be replicated and be reliable

Qualitative Data

descriptive data

Quantitative

data that is numerical, best for statistics

Population

group of people that are of interest to study and apply research to

Sample

selected portion from the population to represent the population in the study

Correlation

non experimental method that compares the strength and relationship of two variables

Correlation Advantages and Disadvantages

advantages: allows to explore when experimenting is not ethical option

disadvantages: cannot make a causal claim

Directionality Problem

idea that direction of cause is unknown

3rd variable Problem

idea that another variable might influence a correlation

Positive Correlation

two variables that increase and decrease together

Negative Correlation

two variables, where one increases and the other decreases in response

Stronger Relationships mean...

data scores are clustered closer on a graph, correlation coefficient is closer to 1, higher the predictability between the variables

Experiments

method to create a causal explanation, independent variable manipulation to measure effect of dependent variable

Experiments Advantages and Disadvantages

advantage of making causal explanations,

disadvantages: some things are unfeasible and unethical to experiment

Independent Variable

manipulated variable to see effect

Experimental Group

group that receives independent variable, can have more than one

Control Group

1 to compare with experimental group to view effect, placebo group

Dependent Variable

variable that is measured, affected by independent variable

Placebo Effect

experience and effects created by expectations alone, blinded studies

Double-Blind

procedure in experiment where research staff and participants are ignorant to the study procedures, drug studies

Single-Blind

procedure in experiment where participants are ignorant to the study procedures, if researchers cannot be blind

Confound

other variables that accidentally flaw the study

Random Assignment

assigning by chance participants to control and experiment groups to equalize any differences allowing the measured effects to be only difference, allows causal explanation

Naturalistic Observation

non experimental method, watching in natural circumstances

Naturalistic Observation Advantages and Disadvantages

adv: applies perfectly to the world

disadv: cannot make causal claims

Case Study

in depth analysis of one or more people

Case Study Advantages and Disadvantages

adv: gathers mass information

disadv: cannot make causal claims

Meta Analysis

mashing up multiple different findings of studies, make samples bigger, see effect sizes

Descriptive Statistics

display data shape

Mean

measure of CT, average, used in normal distribution

Median

measure of CT, middle value, used in skewed distribution

Mode

measure of CT, most occurring value

Bimodal

having two modes on either extremes

Skews

created by outliers

Negative Skew

mean: left, mode: right

Positive Skew

mean: right, mode: left

Range

measure of variation, difference between highest and lowest score

Standard Variation

measure of variation/spread around the mean, higher=more spread out

Inferential Statistics

helps see how significant study is, statistical, effect

Statistical Significance

extent to which the experiment happened due to chance, and the variable manipulation caused the change

p-value

the lower it is, (usually <0.5) the more confidence we may have it is statistically significant

Effect Size

the extent to which the effects of a study impact real life, bigger=better

Ethical Guidelines

confidentiality, no harm, informed consent/assent, deception justifiable, debrief,

Confidentiality

keeping participants names private

Informed Conent

giving enough information to participants to allow for an educated decision whether to participate or not

Informed Assent

for minors and parents agreeing

Debriefing

going over true nature of the study, after deception

Deception

must be justifiable to be approved

No Harm

mentally and physically

Surveys

non experimental method of collecting self reported feelings, --> correlation, usually altered by self report bias, as someone can respond in inaccurate ways

Social Desirability

self report bias, respond in ways to look accepted and desirable

Wording Effects

questions framed in a way that influences ones answer

Random Sample

selecting participants from a population by chance, helps increase generalizability

Representative Sample

sample that equally represents a population of interest

Convenience Sample

sample based in how accessible participants are, decreases generalizability and representation

Sampling Bias

flaw in the sampling process, due to convenience sampling, less representative and generalizability

Cultural Norms

actions of a group of people, affecting study

Experimenter Bias/Participant Bias

expectations of experimenter or participant that affect the study

Cognitive Bias

bias in way of thinking

Confirmation Bias

bias where one seeks information that reinforces belief and alters or ignores contradictory evidence

Hindsight Bias

tendency for one to claim one had forseen an event after learning an outcome

Overconfidence

tendency to be overestimate how correct ones beliefs are

Hathorne Effect

tendency to change behavior when being watched

Research Needs

good sample size and peer review

Evolutionary Psychology

focuses on natural selection influence on behavior

Heredity

genetic influence on behavior

Environment

external influence on behavior

Twin/Adoption Studies

identical twins typically have same genetic diseases(H), and raised apart shows influences of environment (E)

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

rest of nervous system, connects CNS to rest of body

Somatic Nervous System

division of PNS, voluntary movement, sensory and motor neurons

Autonomic Nervous System

division of PNS, involuntary organs, sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Sympathetic Nervous system

ANS, fight or flight, activates all except digestion

Parasympathetic Nervous System

ANS, rests and digests, inhibits all except digestion

Neuron

basic cell of nervous system

Dendrites

branching extensions from cell body, take in NTRS to cell body

Axon

long portion for action potential to go down

Myelin Sheath

fatty, outer protective layer of axon, speeds impulses

Synapse

gap between neurons, NTRS pass through

Sensory Neurons

afferent neurons, send sensory information that was taken in to brain

Motor Neurons

efferent neurons, take signals to move from brain

Interneurons

neurons in spinal cord involved in reflex arc

Reflex Arc

stimulus response that is immediate, automatic, goes straight to the spinal cord

Glia

cells that nourish, support, clean up around the neurons

Neurons Fire with...

action potentials, ions that send an electrical charge down the axon,

Resting Potential

-70mv charge, the state at which they are not sending AP

Depolarization

when the neurons charge changes quickly from neg-->pos, triggering action potential

Threshold of Depolarization

the stimulus strength needed for an action potential to occur

All or Nothing Principle

that once past a certain threshold, the AP is sent, but response is not faster or more intense based on stimulus.

Refractory Period

resting state neuron must be in before it can fire an AP

NeuroTransmitters

electrochemical messengers sent between neurons, can be excitatory or inhibitory (increase or decrease action potentials)

List of NTRS

GABA, glutamate, endorphins, dopamine, serotonin, substance P, Acetylcholine (ACh), Norepinephrine

GABA

inhibitory

Glutamate

excitatory

Acetylcholine (ACh)

muscle action, memory- associated with Alzheimer's

Dopamine

short term reward, fine movement, in hypothalamus, linked to addiction

Serotonin

long term mood, emotion, sleep, amygdala, low rate linked to depression

Endorphins

natural pain killers