developmental exam 3

core knowledge perspective

• innate knowledge of human faces

• prefer faces to other stimuli

• newborns imitate facial expressions

theory of mind

the knowledge that others have intentional actions, emotions and desires, and perceptions and beliefs

social referencing

using another’s emotional reaction to gauge a situation

• ~ 10 months

• difficult when they are different than one’s own

goldfish/broccoli experiment

demonstrate understanding of desire

• 18-month olds give broccoli

• 14-month olds give goldfish anyway

apple hiding experiment

tests what they think others perceive

• 2.5 year olds fail

• 3 year olds pass

sally ann task

tests understanding of false beliefs

• 3 year olds fail

• 4 year olds pass

development of peer relations

nonsocial onlooker —> parallel play —> associative play —> cooperative

• nonsocial play most common before kindergarten

early childhood friendship

• someone who likes you

• someone you play with

importance of early childhood friendship

• context for social and cognitive development

• higher social competence

prosocial behavior

voluntary behavior intended to benefit another, such as helping, sharing, and comforting another

antisocial behavior

behavior that is hurtful or apathetic toward others, such as stealing and inflicting psychological or physical harm

social information-process model of social competence (dodge)

as children asses a situation and solve social problems they use preexisting knowledge, concepts, and attitudes; focus on aggression

• encode

• interpret social cues

• formulate goal

• generate strategies

• evaluate likely success

• enact behavior

hostile attributional bias

aggressive appraisals of and responses to ambiguous scenarios

proactive/instrumental aggression

• fulfill a desire

• unsympathetic

reactive/hostile aggression

• angry/defensive

• provocation/thwarted goal

• meant to hurt other

functional play

simple, repetitive motor movements with or without objects

• first two years

constructive play

creating or constructing something

• 3-6

make-believe play

acting out roles

• 2-6

induction

adult helps child notice feelings by pointing the effects out

willingness to imitate depends on… (modeling)

• warmth and responsiveness

• competence and power

• consistency between assertions and power

why does harsh punishment not work long-term?

• anger, resentment, feeling threatened

• defiant relationship

• leads to abuse

• those who received corporal punishment are more accepting of it

socialization

the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, and knowledge that are regarded as appropriate for their culture

predictions based on parents’ direct reactions

• development of emotion regulation

• socialization of emotion display

• development of self-esteem

  • emotional validation

parents indirect effects predict..

• modeling of positive, negative emotion

self esteem

subjective evaluation of self worth

• high: feel good about self; self efficacy

• low: worthless, helpless; risk for depression, bullying

middle childhood physical growth

• steady gains in height and weight

• lower body before upper body

• girls start growth spurt before boys

middle childhood brain development (generally)

• weight increase by 10% between 6-18 years

• white matter increases

• gray matter peaks then declines

brain development areas in middle childhood

• prefrontal cortex (executive function)

• parietal cortex (spatial skills)

• corpus callosum

concrete operational stage

• logical reasoning about concrete factors

• operations/transformations

  • conservation

concrete operations limits

• reasoning limited to concrete and specific situations

  • poor reasoning about counterfactuals

    • don’t approach objects systematically (pendulum)

executive functioning improvement (middle)

• inhibition, working memory, flexible shifting of attention

  • head-shoulders-knees-toes

  • card sorting

• inflection point around 7 years old

tower of hanoi

• test of planning skills

• must move entire tower to another peg one at a time

gross motor development gains (middle)

• flexibility

• balance

• agility

• force

fine motor development gains (middle)

• print the alphabet and numbers 1-10 (6)

• writing is large

• drawings drastically improve

decentration

focusing on several aspects of a problem and relating them

seriation

ability to order items along a quantitative dimension

• older preschoolers — haphazardly

• 6-7 year olds — efficient

transitive interference

seriating mentally

• 7-8 years

spatial reasoning (middle)

• cognitive maps

  • landmarks accurate

  • fully accurate at 9

  • large scales accurate at 10

organization

grouping related items together

end-elaboration

creating a relationship or shared meaning between pieces of info that aren’t members of the same category

g (general intelligence)

• how much you know

• how quickly you learn new info or skills

• how fast you can solve a new problem

WISC

factors of intelligence

• verbal reasoning

• spatial reasoning

• fluid reasoning

• working memory

• processing speed

standard IQ tests

• Stanford-Binet

• Wechsler (WISC-V)

verbal comprehension

• vocabulary

• similarities

• general info

vocabulary

“Tell me what carpet means. What is a helicopter?”

similarities

“how are a mountain and a river alike?”

general information

“How many ounces make a pound?”

visual spatial processing

• block design

fluid reasoning

• picture concepts

working memory

• digit span

processing speed

• coding: under each square, put a plus….

• symbol search: does the figure to the left of the vertical line also appear to the right of the vertical line?

why measure IQ?

• individual differences (Binet)

• predictor of important outcomes

• gatekeeper of educational resources

• historically

  • support for segregation and oppression

Lewis Terman

• revision of Binet’s test —> Stanford-Binet

• classification for education, careers, immigration quotas

• used as an excuse to attribute IQ to race

Josiah Morse

• tested white and black children, comparing IQ

• proposed IQ proportional to amount of white blood

eugenics

• the study of how to arrange reproduction within a human population to increase the occurrence of heritable characteristics regarded as desirable

• keeping desirable genes in society / eliminating undesirable genes

Herman Canady

• systematic study of cross racial effects in IQ testing

  • bias of experimenters

  • tendency of black children to not want to share about themselves with white adults

  • rapport

Horace Mann Bond

• emphasized that black children were often criticized for being withdrawn; docility assumed to be an inherited trait and had no significance when determining IQ

harsh discipline

• associated with increased antisocial behavior in child

• associated with social cognition impairments

  • models behavior

  • generate and expect aggressive solutions to solve problems

  • lack of sympathy

self concept

set of traits, abilities, attitudes, and values that an individual believes defines who they are

self-esteem

the evaluative side of self-concept: how you evaluate yourself

self esteem dependent on categories

• academic competence

• social competence

• physical/athletic competence

• physical appearance**

middle childhood self-esteem development

• fractures into categories

• drops significantly

• begins to adjust for preservation

achievement-related attributions

• Dweck

• children become mastery oriented or learned helpless depending on what they attribute failure/success to

mastery oriented

• success is due to high ability / failure is due to low effort or difficult task

• ability can be improved through effort (incremental)

• high expectancy of success

• learning task goals

• effective metacognitive and self-regulatory skills

• persistence at challenging tasks

• higher self esteem

learned-helpless

• success due to luck / failure due to low ability

• ability is fixed; cannot be improved through effort (entity)

• low expectancy of success

• performance task goals

• lack of metacognitive and self-regulatory skills

• avoidance of challenging tasks

• lower self esteem

person-praise

• emphasizes performance over learning

• leads to learned-helpless motivation

process-praise

• emphasizes the learning process over performance

• cultivates mastery-oriented children

middle childhood friendships

• mutual agreement

• mutual affection

• respond to needs and desires

• trust

  • kindness, support, loyalty

  • violations

• stable (50-70% lasting > year)

peer groups

collectives that generate unique values and standards for behavior and social structure of leaders and followers

• codes of dress, behavior; creates identity

  • vehicle for social skills

• consistent over time

attribution retraining

encourages children to believe they can overcome failure by exerting more effort and using more effective strategies

popular children

children who get many positive votes

• popular prosocial children

• popular antisocial children

rejected children

children who get many negative votes

• rejected aggressive children

• rejected-withdrawn childen

controversial children

children who receive many votes both positive and negative

neglected children

children seldom mentioned, positively or negatively

biological definition of adolescence

onset of puberty —> capable of reproduction

emotional definition of adolescence

begin to separate from parents —> attain autonomous identity

social definition of adolescence

start of transition into adult roles (job, romantic relationships) —> full attainment of adult responsibilities

educational definition of adolescence

beginning of middle school —> end of mandatory formal education

chronological age definition of adolescence

~11 —> ~18

physical transition in puberty

• body growth (10-11 inches, 50-75 lbs)

• body changes, sexual maturation

growth only hormones

• growth hormone (GH)

• thyroxine (T4)

growth and sexual maturation hormones

• estrogen

• androgens

• testosterone

growth spurt

• girls: 10 years

• boys: 12.5 years

early-developing boys

• viewed as more independent, confident, physically attractive

• more popular, leaders, athletes

• at risk for psychological stress, depressed mood, problem behaviors

late-developing boys

• mild emotional difficulties; depressed mood, acting out

• declines over time

early-developing girls

• viewed as unpopular, anxious, withdrawn, lacking confidence

• not leaders

• risk for depression, aggression, substance abuse, sexual-risk taking

• risks continue into early adulthood

late-developing girls

• viewed as attractive, lively, sociable

• leaders

adolescent cortical development

• amygdala: novelty, emotions

• ventral striatum: reward

• both receive dopamine

  • pubertal hormones make cells more responsive to dopamine

dual systems model

limbic system develops early, prefrontal/executive functions finish developing later

• adolescents take more risks (especially around peers)

adolescent circadian rhythms

• circadian signal delayed a couple of hours compared to adults

• chronic sleep deprivation due to school

formal operations stage

11+

• hypothetico-deductive reasoning and systematic approach to problem solving

• purely logical reasoning, including counterfactuals/hypotheticals

adolescence info processing

• working memory increases

• inhibition improves

• attention more selective and flexible

• planning improves

• knowledge

• strategies more effective

• metacognition

adolescent consequences of cognitive development

• self conscious and self focusing

• distorted image

  • imaginary audience

  • personal fable

• idealism and criticism

adolescent self esteem development

• increase in self esteem

• added factors

  • romantic appeal

  • close friendships

  • job competence

identity vs. role confusion

• Erikson’s 5th stage of psychosocial development

• adolescence to young adulthood

identity crisis (Marcia)

have you considered options (exploration)

identity commitment (Marcia)

have you decided?

identity achievement (Marcia)

crisis and commitment

foreclosure (Marcia)

commitment, but no crisis

moratorium (Marcia)

crisis, but no commitment