who what when... test 1 (unit 2)

Aristotle

Who, What, When

Greek philosopher, student of Plato, tutor to alexander the great

350 BCE

Aristotle

What did he write, why was he significant

De anima

defined the soul as the form of the body, not a separate substance

classified souls as vegetative, sensitive, and rational

explains the soul in terms of form and function, rather than myths or spiritual explanations

treated body and soul as inseparable, influenced debates on mind-body relations for centuries

soul cannot exist without the body

Descartes

Who, What, When

17th century, French philosopher, mathematician

Descartes

What did he write, why was he significant

Discourse on the Method

the body is a machine, senses are unreliable, needs correction by reason and method

introduced his famous principle “I think, therefore I am”

argued separation of mind and body DUALISM

mind is immaterial, body is a machine

shifted galens humoral model toward a mechanistic view of the body

Cavendish

who, what, when

17th century

Duchess of Newcastle

English natural philosopher, writer, and one of the first women to publish widely under her own name

Cavendish

What did she write, why was she significant

“On Human sense and perception” and “of Micrography”

On Human Sense and Perception

challenged mechanical philosophy of Descartes and Hobbes

argued all matter has self-knowledge and perception, rejected the body as a machine

argued a vitalist and holistic view of nature, where perception and senses are intrinsic to matter itself

Of Micrography

critique of Hooke’s microscopes

argued microscopes distort reality

showed that instruments introduced subjectivity rather than pure objectivity

defense of natural sense perception over mechanical aids

Galileo

Who, What, when

Italian Astronomer and Mathematist

16th-17th century

Galileo

what did he write, why was he significant

The Starry Messenger

extended sight with the telescope, allowed sight to reach beyond natural limits

reported his telescopic discoveries of Jupiter’s moons, craters on the moon, stars in the milky way

published in venice italy

redefined human perception by extending vision with instruments

Hooke

who, what, when

17th century

english philosopher, member of royal society

Hooke

What did he write, why was he significant

Micrographia

observed hidden worlds with the microscope

coined the word cell

objective science through physical evidence

extended sight with the microscope

showed the power of instruments in revealing hidden worlds

Swift

Who, What, When

Anglo-Irish satirist and clergyman

18th century

Swift

What did he write, why was he significant

Gullivers Travels

satirical novel critiquing science, politics, and human nature

satirized the obsession with experimental science and instrument-based senses, do new sensory extensions truly produce knowledge?

published anonymously in London

mocked blind faith in instruments, highlighting tensions between science, objectivity, and human folly

Laennec

Who, What, When

18th-19th century, French physician

Laennec

What did he write, why was he significant

wrote Treatise on the Diseases of the Chest in the 19th century

introduced the stethoscope and reorganized hearing by inserting the stethoscope between doctor and patient

improved accuracy in diagnosing chest and lung diseases

marked a shift toward objectivity in medicine where instruments mediated between doctor and patient

shift from direct sensory contact to instrument-mediated perception

J. Nicholas Mitchell

Who, What, When

19th century physician and writer

american

Mitchell

What did he write, why was he significant

wrote The Physician or Doctor of medicine

reflected on the physician’s role

medicine requires not only observation by also emotional and moral senses, re-centered subjectivity in the doctor-patient relationship

pushed back against a purely technical or mechanical view of the physician

Cooke

Who, What, When

19th century, American chemist and harvard professor

Cooke

What did he write, why was he significant

Scientific Culture

promoted science as training the mind’s senses of judgement, discipline, and morality, cultivating inner “perceptual” habits

argued that science education is essential to intellectual and moral development

promoted science as a way of training the mind and senses, reflected science as the rise of cultural authority

Pearson

Who, What, When

19th-20th century British mathematician and philosopher

Pearson

What did he write, why was he significant

The Grammar of Science

stressed objectivity and measurement, reducing knowledge to what can be observed and quantified through the senses, especially via instruments and statistics

the sensorium

the 5 senses

Plato (senses)

-Greek philosopher.

-Theorized about senses as a source of imperfect knowledge compared to rational thought.

-5th–4th century BCE.

-Ancient Greece.

-To argue that true knowledge comes from reason, not the senses.

Aristotle (senses)

-Greek philosopher and scientist.

-sight > hearing > smell > taste > touch. hierarchy of senses

-4th century BCE.

-Ancient Greece.

-To classify senses and understand their role in perception and knowledge.

Galen (senses)

-Physician and philosopher.

-Distinguished external (5) vs. internal (3) senses; mental (seeing, hearing) vs. physical perception (taste, smell, touch)

-2nd century CE.

-Roman Empire (Greek origin).

Emission/extramission theory

-Proposed by early Greek philosophers like Plato and Euclid.

-The idea that vision occurs because the eyes emit rays that touch objects, rather than light entering the eyes.

-5th–4th century BCE (Classical Greece).

-Ancient Greece.

-To explain how humans see; an early theory of vision before the discovery of the true role of light and the retina.

intromission theory

-Proposed by philosophers like Aristotle and earlier thinkers challenging emission theory.

-The idea that vision occurs when objects emit something (like “forms” or “species”) that enters the eyes, rather than the eyes sending out rays.

-4th century BCE (Aristotle) and earlier.

-Ancient Greece.

-To explain vision more accurately than emission theory; laid the groundwork for later optical science and understanding of light entering the eye.

Leonardo Da Vinci

-Italian polymath (artist, scientist, engineer, anatomist).

-Studied human anatomy, including the eye and the senses; made detailed drawings of sensory organs and explored how vision works.

-1452–1519 (Renaissance).

-Italy.

-To understand the human body scientifically and improve knowledge of perception, anatomy, and art; combined observation with experimentation, bridging art and science.

Isaac Newton

-English mathematician, physicist, and natural philosopher.

-Studied light and color; discovered that white light is composed of a spectrum of colors using prisms; contributed to understanding vision and optics.

-17th–early 18th century.

-England.

-To explain how light and color work scientifically; advanced knowledge of optics and how humans perceive visual information.

microscope (hooke)

-English scientist, polymath, and microscopist.

-Used a compound microscope to study thin slices of cork; coined the term “cell” in Micrographia (1665).

-1665 (publication of Micrographia).

-England.

-To observe microscopic structures of plants and objects; helped launch cell theory and modern microscopy.

microscope (leeuwenhoek)

-Dutch tradesman and scientist.

-Built high-quality single-lens microscopes; first to observe bacteria, protozoa, and sperm cells (1670s–1680s).

-Late 17th century (1670s–1680s).

-The Netherlands.

-To explore the microscopic world; provided first evidence of microorganisms, greatly expanding knowledge of biology and human perception.

Phantasmagoria

-Popularized by showmen and entertainers such as Étienne-Gaspard Robert (Robertson).

-A form of horror theater using magic lanterns to project ghostly images, creating illusions of spirits and phantoms.

-Late 18th to early 19th century (c. 1790s–1830s).

-Europe, especially France and Germany.

-To explore visual perception, illusion, and the emotional power of imagery; shows the interaction between senses, fear, and entertainment.

Nicolaas Hartsoeker

-Dutch mathematician and microscopist.

-Proposed the homunculus in sperm, supporting “spermist” theory of generation (1695).

-Late 17th century.

-The Netherlands.

-To use microscopic observation to study reproduction; relied on enhanced senses via instruments.

Consensus and the Social Construction of Scientific Knowledge / The Royal Society:

-Founded by a group of English scientists and intellectuals, including Robert Boyle, Christopher Wren, and Robert Hooke.

-The Royal Society was established to promote collaborative scientific research, experimentation, and verification; emphasized consensus and peer validation in producing knowledge.

-Founded in 1660.

-London, England.

-To formalize the scientific method, ensure reliable knowledge through shared observation and experimentation, and establish science as a social, collaborative enterprise rather than individual opinion.

Robert Boyle and the air-pump experiments:

-Robert Boyle, Irish chemist, physicist, and natural philosopher.

-Conducted experiments with the air pump to study air pressure, vacuums, and the properties of gases; famously demonstrated that air is necessary for life and combustion.

-1660s.

-England (London).

-To produce empirical, verifiable knowledge about nature through controlled experiments; emphasized observation, measurement, and reproducibility—key principles of early modern science.

Robert Boyle vs. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679, English)
Experimental/mechanical philosophy vs. natural philosophy

Robert Boyle (1627–1691, Irish)

-Chemist, physicist, and experimental philosopher.

-Advocated experimental/mechanical philosophy—knowledge comes from controlled experiments, observation, and instruments (e.g., air-pump experiments).

-17th century (1660s–1690s).

-England.

-To produce reliable, reproducible scientific knowledge based on empirical evidence

Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679, English)

-Philosopher and political theorist.

-Advocated natural philosophy—knowledge of nature could be derived from reason and rational principles, often without experimentation.

-17th century.

-England.

-To explain the world through logical reasoning and deduction rather than hands-on experiments; emphasized thought over sensory verification.

Immanuel Kant

-Immanuel Kant, German philosopher.

-Wrote Critique of Pure Reason (1781), exploring the limits of human knowledge, perception, and the role of the senses in shaping experience.

-1781 (publication); lived 1724–1804.

-Königsberg, Prussia (modern-day Kaliningrad, Russia).

-To argue that the mind actively structures experience; while knowledge begins with the senses, reason organizes and interprets sensory data—bridging empiricism and rationalism.