PSYCH Exam #3- Figures

Clark and Hatfield

"I've been noticing you around campus. I find you very attractive"

men are more likely to go to bed with a female

75% of males agreed go to bed

NO females agreed

William McDougall

Whole range of human behavior is instinctual, such as aggression

Problem: suggests the existence of SOOO many instincts

every motivation behavior would have a new instinct related to it

based on tautology reasoning

Clark Hull

All human behavior is a function of 4 drives:

Hunger

Thirst

Sex

Avoidance of pain

1,2 & 3 are cyclical

motivate in ways that relieves a drive, and gets reinforced

Abraham Maslow

hierarchy of needs

- all basic needs must be satisfied for someone to be self-actualized

-needs at base of pyramid are more important, set the basis that build of each other

Cannon and Washburn

- Stomach contraction theory

- We are hungry when stomach contracts

Study:

long tube with balloon swallowed, monitored when it compressed with contractions

pressed button when hungry

- analyzed how they compare

William Masters and Virginia Johnson

Sexual Response Cycle:

recorded psychological responses to masturbation and intercourse

4 Stages:

Excitement

Plateau

Orgasm

Resolution

Sexual Orientation: Aristotle

Inborn, and strengthened by habit

Sexual Orientation: Freud

Stems from family dynamics, overattachment to parent of the same sex

Sexual Orientation: Simon Levae

Biological theory-

studied autopsies of homo men and hetero women and men

Homosexual men--> nucleus in brain was half the size of heterosexual men

more similar to size of woman

Baumeister and Leary

Need to Belong Theory:

fundamental human motivation

new attachment = joy

loss of attachment= sad and anxiety

David McClelland

Need for Achievement:

strong desire to accomplish difficult tasks, outperform others, and excel

crave success more than fear of failure

credit themselves for success, attribute failures to others

David Winter

Need for power:

A strong desire to acquire prestige and influence over others.

Amy Wrzesniewski

Attitudes Towards Work:

3 variations:

job- useless, make money

Career- opportunity, advance

Calling- fulfilling, socially useful

Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi

Flow at Work:

-quality of work increases when people engaged in work

- perfect flow lies between boredom and challenging/stress

- intense concentration, loss awareness of time

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Arguing that our emotional experience follows behavioral expression

Going against the commonsense view of emotion where emotional experience precedes behavioral expression

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Challenged their theory in 3 ways:

- bodily changes alone can't produce emotions

- at times, emotions are experienced instantly, before the body has time to react

- Physiological changes that do occur are too general to distinguish between different emotions (ex. fear, anger, love all makes heart rate increase)

Charles Darwin

Face communicates emotion in innate ways that are universally understood

Paul Ekman et al.

All over the world, people can reliably identify 6 emotions in the faces of others

Carrol Izard et al.

Confirmed that also these emotions and expressions are innate by finding examples of emotions across lifespan:

infants make the same faces

and adults can recognize them

Fritz Strack et al.

Study on Facial Feedback Hypothesis:

Reading cartoons in 2 conditions:

1- while holding pen between teeth- mimic smile

2- while holding pen between lips- mimic frown

1 people found it funnier- corresponding change in emotion

Schacher-Singer

2 factor theory of emotion:

1- must experience generalized physiological arousal (racing hearty, sweaty palms, rapid breathing)

2- We look at situation and try to explain the source of the arousal

attribute our arousal to this source

STUDY:

males told they get vitamin

1/3 got a placebo 2/3 got epinephrine

1- told about what the side affects would be

2- not told of effects

3- placebo harmless group

Results:

Placebo control=no arousal

1- attributed arousal to the drug

2- couldn't attribute to drug, so instead attributed feelings to their environment (confederate)

Dutton and Aron

bridge study, misattribution of arousal

1- narrow wobble bridge

2- steady wide

approached by female, given her number

2 were most likely to call, attributed scary arousal to female, interpret as amorous feeling

Fritz Heider

Attribution Theory: to person (disposition) or situation

- aim to understand cause of behavior

-proposed people are intuitive scientists- why people do what they do?

Harold Kelly

Proposed people make attributions based on 3 types of info:

1. Consensus- how others react to same stimuli

(see if cause if because of the person)

2. Distinctiveness- how someone reacts to different stimuli (see if cause is because of the stimuli)

3. Consistency- how someone reacts to same stimuli at different time (see if cause is due to the specific circumstance)

Film example

Jones and Harris

discovered fundamental attribution error (FAE)

Study:

read college essays for + against Castro

1- told they freely chose stance

2- told stance was assigned

Results:

1- sensibly judged person's attitude

2- inferred attitude based on content of speech

ignored situational cues

Rose et al.

Fundamental Attribution Error:

Study:

Quiz show w/ audience, questioner, contenstant

questioner- ask 10 impossible questions,

contestant- answer, only 40% correct

Audience- rate their intelligence

Results:

they judged questioner overall smarter, ignoring the situation that the questions were meant to be impossible and make the person look stupid

attributed to the person not the situation

Chartrand & Bargh

chameleon effect - These researchers had students work in a room alongside another person, who was actually a confederate working for the experimenters. Sometimes the confederates rubbed their own face, sometimes they shook their foot. The students tended to rub their face when with the face-rubbing person and shake their foot when with the foot-shaking person.

Empathy- we mimic reactions of others

Mood Linkage

Soloman Asch Experiment

Conformity:

this experiment asked which line was identical to X. They found that the participant was confident in his answer until his peers chose a different answer which made the participant conform to the group and follow in picking the wrong answer

37% gave wrong answer when others did too

Stanley Milgram

Obedience to authority;

had participants (as teachers) administer what they believed were dangerous electrical shocks to other participants (learner) when they answered a question wrong.

kept being urged to go on by authority and amp the voltage with each wrong answer.

even when learner fell silent, 63% of people complied to give them max voltage amount

Norman Triplett

studied social facilitation:

Bike race records and kids winding fishing reels:

times were faster when competing with others vs alone

"Nervous energy" - enhance performance

Robert Zajonc

Dominant Response:

presence of others helps with easy tasks but hinders complex tasks

Increases arousal=increase in the "dominant response"

Easy task- dominant response is correct response

Hard- dominant is wrong

Ingham et al.

Social Loafing:

Experiment with pulling rope

pulled harder alone than with others

Latane et al.

Aim: To see whether being in a group would have an effect on how much effort participants put into a task.

Method: Researchers asked 84 participants to shout and clap as loudly as they could while they were alone or in groups of up to six. Each participant wore headphones so they couldn't hear the others.

Results: The larger the group size, the less noise the participants made.

Conclusion: People put less effort into doing something when they know other are contributing effort to the same task than they do when they are the only one.

Richard Petty and John Cacioppo

Two-Track Model of Persuasion:

1. Central Route

influenced by strength and quality of argument, affective when people can think critically about contents of the message

durable and more likely to influence behavior

2. Peripheral Route

influenced by superficial cues of speaker

affective when no critical thinking or motivation to pay close attention

less durable, less likely influence behavior

Freedman and Fraser

foot-in-the-door phenomenon:

Study: safe driving volunteers

1st- only asked to put up big ugly sign, most said no (17%)

2nd- given small sign, most said yes, THEN big ugly sign, more said yes this time (76%)

Zimbardo

Role Playing

Stanford Prison Experiment:

-participants had role of guard or prisoner

-after 2 days, roles became reality

-guards actually started acting cruel, prisoners wanted escape

Actions have direct effect on attitude!

Festinger and Carlsmith

Conducted the classic experiment about cognitive dissonance:

Study: participants given very boring tasks to perform for an hour

1. given a dollar to lie to next person say its fun

2. given $20 to lie

3. Control- told tell truth

2. and 3. -> showed low levels of enjoyment when asked abt the experiment, and 2. could justify the little lie for $20

1. Couldn't justify the lie for $1, so when asked, they showed high levels of enjoyment, had to change attitude to match their action, to justify it.

Moreland and Beach

Mere Exposure Effect

Study: 4 attractive women sit silently in class, but some come more often than others

- when asked, found the one that went most frequently more attractive

EXPOSURE!

Meta et al.

Mere Exposure Effect

Study: 2 pictures shown

1. actual image of person

2. mirror image

person thought mirror image looked better

friends think actual image better

Depends on exposure to the stimuli

Carducci et al.

Passionate Love

Study: college men aroused by different stimuli

Result- when aroused, they rated gf and other women to be more attractive