families and households !

what do 'functionalists' believe? -

• society is based on a value consensus, a set of shared values into which society socialises its members this allows them to cooperate harmoniously and meet society's needs
• regard society as made up of different parts that rely on each other, similar to a biological organism

what are the four functions of a family 'Murdock' (1949)? -

• sexual function
• reproductive function
• educational function
• economic function

how is 'Murdock' criticised? -

• marxists and feminists reject his harmonious consensus view that family meets the needs of both society and family members, argue functionalism neglects conflict
• feminists see the family as serving the needs of men and oppressing women
• marxists argue family meets the needs of capitalism, not those in the family or society as a whole
• sociologists believe these functions can be performed by other institutions and family types, not just the nuclear family

what is a 'family'? -

• a couple whose relationship is based on marriage, civil partnership or cohabitation., with or without dependent children, or a lone parent with children

what is a 'household'? -

• either a person who lives alone or a couple of people who live at the same address and who share at least one meal a day or facilities such as a living room

what is a 'nuclear family'? -

• consists of a couple and their child or children living together in one household

what is a 'same-sex family'? -

• family in which a gay or lesbian couple live together with their child or children
• rise of these families marks shift towards greater freedom for individuals

what is a 'extended family'? -

• a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, including grandparents, aunts, uncles, and other relatives, who all live nearby or in one household

what is a 'beanpole family'? -

• describes families with multiple generations of older people and few children in any one generations
• long and thin

what are 'lone parent families'? -

• one adult with one or more children living in one household

what are 'reconstituted families'? -

• referred to as a step family, one or both parents have a child from a previous relationship living with them.
• one of the parents is a 'stepparent'

what is a 'kin'? -

• relatives or relations, usually those related by common descent

why is there an increase in one-person households? -

• people living longer, more elderly one person
• people remain single and childless
• people are more likely to get divorced
• people chose to live apart from their partners

what is 'Parsons' (1955) functional fit theory? -

• the functions that the family performs are based on the society it is in
• nuclear family
• extended family
• two types of society, modern industrial and traditional pre-industrial, parsons believes the nuclear family fits modern society, and the extended family fits pre-industrial.
• this is due to modern society having two needs as

a geographically mobile workforce and a socially mobile workforce

what is the 'geographically mobile workforce'? -

• in modern society, the industry is always changing
• people have to move to where the jobs are, Parsons argues that the nuclear family is easier to move than the extended family.

what is the 'socially mobile workforce'? -

• modern society is based on constantly evolving technology, so it requires a skilled, technologically competent workforce
• important that skilled workers can get promotions and acquire the most important jobs
• in modern society, status is not ascribed but achieved, meaning social mobility is possible

what are the two functions of 'nuclear families'? -

• primary socialisation of children
• stabilisation of adult personalities

what is the 'primary socialisation of children'? -

• to equip them with basic skills and society's values, to enable them too cooperate with others and integrate them into society

what is the 'stabilisation of adult personalities'? -

• family is a place where adults can relax and release tensions, enabling them to return to the workplace refreshed and ready to meet demands

what do 'marxist's believe'? -

• see capitalist society as based on the unequal conflict between the bourgeoisie and proletariat
• see all institutions such as schools, media and family as helping to maintain class inequality
• marxist's see that the functions of the family are performed purely to benefit capitalist society

what are the functions marxists believe the family performs? -

• inheritance of property
• ideological functions
• unit of consumption

what is 'inheritance of property'? -

• in early societies, humans were classless, with no private property. As wealth increased, private properties emerged,
  leading to the establishment of a 'monogamous nuclear family'
• according to 'Engles', monogamy was necessary for men to have their legitimate heirs inherit their properties
• Marxists argue only with the overthrow of capitalism and private property will women be liberated

what is 'ideological functions'? -

• argues family provides ideological functions for capitalism
• set of beliefs that justify inequality and persuade people to accept that it's fair
• family does this by socialising children into the idea that inequality is inevitable and accustoming children to the idea that there is always someone in charge (usually men)

what does 'Zaretsky' (1976) say about ideological functions? -

• family provides a 'safe haven' from the harsh and exploitative world of capitalism outside, in which workers can be themselves and have a private life

what is 'unit of consumption'? -

• capitalism exploits worker's labour by selling products to them for more than it pays them to make
• therefore, family generates profit for capitalists by purchasing goods

what are criticisms of the marxist perspective? -

• assume the nuclear family is dominant in capitalist society but this ignores the variety of family structures in today's family
• functionalists argue they ignore the benefits that family provides for its members
• feminists argue the focus on class underestimates the importance of gender inequality in the family

who are 'liberal feminists'? -

• campaigning against sex discrimination and for equal rights for women
• argue women's oppression is being gradually overcome through people's changing attitudes and laws such as 'sex discrimination' 1975
• do not believe full gender equality has been achieved, but they argue there has been gradual progress

how are 'liberal feminists' criticised? -

• for failing to challenge the cause of women's oppression and for believing that changes in laws or attitudes is enough to bring equality

who are 'marxist feminists'? -

• argue that the leading cause of women's oppression is not men but capitalism and that this oppression benefits capitalism in several ways such as,
• women reproduce the labour force
• women absorb men's anger
• women are cheap labour

who are 'radical feminists'? -

• argue all societies have been founded on patriarchy, see men as the source of women's oppression,
• argue that families and patriarchal systems need to be abolished as it is the root of oppression, and the only way to achieve this is through 'separatism'
• many argue for 'political lesbianism'

who are 'difference feminists'? -

• argue we cannot generalise about women's experiences, argue all types of women have different experiences from the family
• other feminists argue they neglect the fact that all women share many of the same experiences eg

all face low pay and domestic abuse

what is the 'personal life perspective on families'? -

• argues we must focus on the meanings people give to relationships and on how they define family
• they argue that 'structural theories' assume the nuclear family is the dominant family type

what is the 'sociology of personal life'? -

• strongly influenced by interactionalist ideas and argues to understand families, we must understand the meanings people give to their relationships
• takes a bottom-up approach, emphasises the meanings family members give and how this shapes their actions
• 'structural theories' take a 'top-down' approach

what is meant by 'beyond ties and of blood and marriage'? -

• personal life perspective takes a wider view of relationships than just traditional 'family' based on blood or marriage
• relationship with friends 'may be like a sibling'
• fictive kin 'family friend may be referred to as auntie'
• deceased family
• pets

what is the evaluation of the 'personal life perspective'? -

• accused of taking too much of a broad view
• critics argue by including a wide range of relationships, we ignore what is special about blood or marriage relationships
• reject the 'top-down' view taken by struc theories such as functionalism

what does 'Parsons' (1955) say about instrumental and expressive roles? -

• in traditional nuclear families, the roles of husband and wife are segregated
• husband has an instrumental role, breadwinner, achieving success at work so can provide for the family
• wife is expressive, geared towards primary socialisation of children, is the homemaker and full-time housewife
• claims this division of labour is beneficial for both genders as it is based on biological differences, such as women are more naturally suited to nurtuting roles and men as providers

how is 'Parsons' view criticised? -

• 'young and wilmott' (1962) argue that men are now taking a greater share of domestic tasks and more wives are becoming wage earners
• feminists reject this view that the division of labour is natural, they argue it only benefits men

what did 'Young and Willmott' (1973) find about the symmetrical family? -

• take a 'march of progress view', see family life as improving for all its members, becoming more equal and democratic
• has been a trend away from segregated conjugal roles and more towards joint conjugal roles and symmetrical family
• symmetrical family means one in which the roles of husband and wives are more similar
• women now go to work
• men help with housework and childcare
• found in the london study, symmetrical family more common with younger, affluent couples

what does 'Bott' (1957) say about conjugal roles? -

• segregated conjugal roles, where couples have separate roles: male breadwinners and women housemakers
• joint conjugal roles, where couples share tasks such as housework and childcare

what did 'Young and Willmott' (1973) find about conjugal roles? -

• identified a pattern of segregated conjugal roles in the study of traditional w/c extended families in London, 1950s
• men were breadwinners and played little part in home life and spent their social time in pubs
• women were full-time housewives with the responsibility of housework and childcare, helped by female relatives

what is the feminist view of 'housework'? -

• feminists reject the march of progress view, they argue there has been little change and that men and women remain unequal within the family, with women completing the majority of the housework
• they believe this inequality stems from the fact that society and the family are male-dominant

how does 'Ann Oakley' (1974) criticise the symmetrical family? -

• although Young and Wilmott found that the majority of husbands they interviewed helped their wives once a week, this is simply not symmetrical
• she later found that only 15% of husbands had a high level of participation in housework, and 25% in childcare

what is the cultural explanation of inequality? -

• division of labour is determined by patriarchal norms that shape the gender roles in our culture
• women perform more domestic roles simply because that is what society expects them to do

what is the material explanation of inequality? -

• the fact that women generally earn less than men means it is economically rational for women to do more of the housework and childcare, while men spend more time making money

what is the evidence for the cultural explanation? -

• Gershuny (1994) found that couples whose parents had a more equal relationship are more likely to share housework themselves
• this suggests parent role models are important and that social values are now adapting to the fact that women are working full time

what is the evidence for the material explanation? -

• Kan found that for every £10,000 a year more a woman earns, she does two hours less housework a week
• Ramos (2003) found that when the woman is the full-time breadwinner and the man is unemployed, he does as much domestic labour as she does

what is 'money management'? -

• Pahl and Vogler (1993), 'allowance system' where men give wives allowances, which they need to budget to meet familys needs
• 'pooling', where partners have access to income and joint responsibility for expenditure, eg, shared bank account
• found that despite pooling, men had more power in financial decisions

what is 'domestic violence'? -

• any incident or pattern of incidents of controlling, coercive or threatening behaviour, violence or abuse between those aged 16 or over who are or have been intimate partners or family members, regardless of gender or sexuality.

how have sociologists challenged the view that 'sick individuals perform the behaviour and that its causes are psychological rather than social'? -

• domestic violence is too widespread. Women's Aid Federation (2014), domestic violence accounts for a sixth and a quarter of all recorded violent crime
• does not occur randomly, but follows particular social patterns, Coleman and Osborne (2010), 1/3 of all female homicide victims are killed by a partner or former partner

what is the radical feminist explanation of domestic abuse? -

• see marriage and family as the key institutions in patriarchal society and the main source of female oppression

therefore, men dominate through the threat of physical coercion

• widespread domestic violence is inevitable in a patriarchal society and serves to preserve all the power men have over women
• the male domination of the state helps to explain why the police are reluctant to deal effectively with the cases

what is the materialist explanation of domestic abuse? -

• focuses on economic and material factors, such as inequalities in housing, to explain why some groups are at more risk than others
• inequality means some families have fewer resources than others

therefore this decreases the chances of living stably and increases the risk of conflict

• worries about money, job, and housing may spill into domestic conflict
• lack of money restricts people's social circle and reduces social support for those under stress

what is meant by childhood acting as a social construct? -

• something defined by society, what people define childhood as, and the position children occupy in society is not fixed but differs between different places and cultures

what is 'the modern western notion of childhood'? -

• children are seen as fundamentally different from adults

they are regarded as physically and psychologically immature thus are not competent enough to be independent

• thus, they require a lengthy and protected period of nurturing and socialisation to prepare them for adult life
• childhood is a distinct stage in life, eg, laws regulating what children can and cannot do, the difference in what adults and children wear
• childhood is 'golden age'

therefore they are vulnerable so they become protected and quarantined from the world

what is the 'cross-cultural differences in childhood'? -

• comparative approach, how children are seen and treated in other places
• they take responsibility at an early age
• less value is placed on children showing obedience to adult authority
• childrens sexual behaviour is viewed differently

what is the globalisation of western childhood? -

• where international humanitarian and welfare agencies have exported and imposed on the rest of the world, western norms of what childhood should be
• eg, separate life stage, nuclear family and in school

what are the historical differences in childhood? -

• Aries (1960) argues that the idea of childhood did not exist

children were not seen as having different needs compared to adults once they passed the stage of physical dependency

• children would begin work from an early age and were treated as 'mini adults'

the law made no distinction between adults and children

• Shorter (1975), high death rates encouraged indifference towards infants, common for parents to name newborn baby to recently deceased child

what is the modern cult of childhood? -

• aries argued modern notions began to emerge from the 19th century onwards:
• schools, prev. only for adults, but then tailored to children, presents the increasing influence of the church that viewed children as fragile 'creatures of god' in need of protection
• clothing, growing distinction between children and adults
• child-centeredness - by the 18th century, handbooks on childrearing were widely available: the growth of child-centeredness at least among the middle classes

what are the reasons for the change in the position of children? -

• laws restricting child labour
• introduction of compulsory schooling
• child protection legislation
• declining family size and lower infant mortality rate
• children became the subject of medical knowledge

what is the 'disappearance of childhood'? -

• Postman (1994) argues childhood is disappearing, pointing towards the trend that children have the same rights as adults, and children committing adult crimes such as murder
• argues that the cause of this emergence is the fall and rise of print culture and television culture
• during middle ages, most people were illiterate, and speech was the only skill needed to enter the adult world, so children could enter quickly, no distinction between the world of adult and child

what is the information hierarchy? -

• the sharp division between adults, who can read, and children, who cannot
• introduced by Postman (1994)
• gave adults the power to mask topics such as sex, violence, and death
• however television blurs the distinction as it is easy to access and doesn't require specialist skills

what is childhood in postmodernity? -

• Jenks (2005) does not believe that childhood is disappearing, but he does believe it is changing
• agree with aries that childhood is creation for modern society that prepares children for the adult world, to achieve this, the child needs to be nurtured by a child-centred family
• argue childhood is changing from modernity to postmodernity because, as adult relationships were stable, but now divorce is more common
• in postmodernity, parents become more protective of children due to upheaval of life, eg, from child abuse and crime

what is the march of progress view relating to childhood? -

• argues that over the past few centuries, the position of children in western societies has been steadily improving and today is better than it has ever been
• aries and shorter hold a march of progress view, believe children are even more valued and better cared for today due to education, have more rights and enjoy better healthcare
• eg, children are protected from harm and exploitation through laws protecting them from child abuse and labour, while professionals cater for their medical needs

what is the 'child-centred family'? -

• higher living standards and smaller family sizes mean parents can afford to provide for children's needs properly
• family has become child-centred- they're the focal point
• children consulted on decisions
• parents invest emotionally and financially in their child with high aspirations
• society as a whole is child-centred, e.g. media output designed for children

what is the 'toxic childhood'? -

• palmer (2007), where rapid technological and cultural changes in recent years have damaged children's physical, emotional and intellectual development
• changes rank from junk food, computer games, crime and long hours parents are working
• UNICEF (2013) ranks the UK 16th out of 29 for children's wellbeing

what is the conflict view of childhood? -

conflict sociologists like marxist and feminists argue march of progress view of modern childhood is based on false and idealised images that ignore important inequalities:
-inequalities among children
-inequalities between children and adults

what are the inequalities among children? -

not all children share the same status or experience:

• different nationalities, experience different childhoods and life chances
• gender differences, Mayer Hillman (1993) boys are given more freedom of movement than girls, Jens Bonke (1999) girls do more domestic labour, especially in lone-parent families, where they do 5 times more than boys
• ethnic differences
• class inequalities
• thus we can't generalise children or childhood as if they are all equal

what are the inequalities between children and adults? -

• march of progress argues that adults use this power to protect children, eg, passing laws to protect from child labour
• Firestone (1979) and Holt (1974) argue that these perceived caring acts are just means of oppression and control

what is 'control over children's space'? -

• children's movements in industrial societies, e.g.britain are highly regulated- places they can and can't go. increasingly close surveillance over children in public spaces, especially at times when they should be in school
• fears about road safety and stranger danger, ed to more children being driven to school rather than travelling independently
• Cunningham (2007), the 'home habitat' of 8-year-olds (the area where they can travel alone) shrank to 1/9 of the size it was 25 years earlier
• control and surveillance contrast with the independence of many children in developing countries. - Cindi Katz (2004) describes rural sudanese children being able to freely roam within the village and several kilometres outside of it

what is 'control over children's time'? -

• adults in modern society control daily routines, when they get up, eat, go to school, and sleep
• they control the speed when the child grows up, whether

what is 'control over children's bodies'? -

• adults control by dictating how they sit, run, and what they wear
• taken for granted that children's bodies may be touched

they are dressed, washed and disciplined by smacking

• adults restrict how children can touch their bodies, eg

not suck thumb or pick nose

what is 'age patriarchy'? -

• Gittins (1998) used the term to describe inequalities between adults and children, age patriarchy describes male domination and female dependency, as well a child dependency
• patriarchy means 'rule by father', linking to the idea that the man is the power of the house

what are the reasons for the decline in birth rates? -

• changes in women's position
• decline in infant mortality rate
• children are now a economic liability
• child-centredness

what is 'changes in women's position'? -

• legal equality with men
• increased educational opportunities
• more women are paid in employment
• easier access to divorce
• access to abortion and contraception
• Harper (2012), the education of women is the most important reason for the long-term fall in birth rates, educated women use family planning and see other possibilities apart from the traditional role of a housewife

what is 'decline in infant mortality rate'? -

• measures the number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand babies born alive, per year
• Harper argues that the decline in IMR means that there is a fall in birth rate as as if infants die, parents will have more babies to replace, thereby if babies survive, parents will have fewer

what are the reasons for the decline in the infant mortality rate? -

• improved housing and better sanitation, such as clean water and reduced infectious diseases
• better nutrition
• better knowledge of hygiene and child health
• improved medical services for mothers and children

what is 'children being an economic liability'? -

• until the late 19th century, children were economic assets as they could be sent to work
• due to laws banning child labour and introducing compulsory schooling means that children stay financially dependent on their parents for longer
• changing norms about what children should expect from parents in material terms means that the cost of raising children has risen

what is 'child centredness'? -

• means childhood is now socially constructed as a uniquely important period in the individual's life
• in family size, this has shifted from 'quantity' to 'quality' so parents focus their attention on fewer

what is 'future trends in birth rates'? -

• birth rates, fertility rates have fallen in the last century, but slight increase during the first decade of the 21st century
• because there is an increase in immigration, mothers external to the UK have a higher fertility rate than those born in the UK

what are the effects of changes in fertility? -

• the family, smaller families mean women have free time to go to work, creating the dual earner couple
• the dependency ratio, the relationship between the working side of population and the non-working size
• public services and policies, a low birth rate means that fewer maternity and health services are needed also affecting the type of housing needed while contributing to the ageing population

what are the reasons for the decline in death rates? -

• improved nutrition
• medical improvements
• smoking and diet
• public health measures
• social changes

what is 'improved nutrition'? -

• McKeown (1972) argues improved nutrition accounted for up to half the reduction in death rates, important in reducing deaths from TB
• better nutrition increased the resistance to infection and increased the survival chance

what is 'medical improvements'? -

• before the 1950s, medical improvements played no part in reductions of death from infectious disease
• post 1950s, improvements such as antibiotics, blood transfusions and improved maternity services helped to reduce deaths
• in addition, the introduction of the NHS and improved medical knowledge have reduced deaths due to improved medication

what is 'smoking and diet'? -

• harper argues that the decline in death rate is not due to medical advancement but simply a reduction in the number of people smoking
• in the 21st century, obesity replaced the lifestyle factor of smoking
• although obesity has increased, death from obesity has been kept low
• harper claims that we are moving towards an american health culture where lifestyles are unhealthy, but a long lifespan is achieved through costly medicine

what is 'public health measures'? -

• 20th century governemnt enforced laws taht led to improvements
• included improvements in housing eg, better ventilation, less overcrowded accomodation and improved sewage system

what is 'other social change'? -

• decline in dangerous manual occupations such as mining
• smaller families reduced the rate of transmission of infections
• greater public knowledge of the causation of illness
• higher incomes allowing for healthier lifestyles

what is 'life expectancy'? -

• refers to how long, on average, a person born in a given year can expect to live, as death rates have fallen, life expectancy has increased
• males born in england in 1900 could expect on average to live until they were 50
• males born in england in 2018 can expect to live until 87.6

what is an 'ageing population'? -

• when there is an increasing/larger number of people 65+
  caused by three factors

• increasing life expectancy
• declining infant mortality
• declining fertility

what are the reasons for an 'ageing population'? -

• public services
• one-person pensioner households
• the dependency ratio

what is 'public services'? -

• older people consume more services, such as health and social care, than other groups
• increased expenditure on health care, ageing population means changes to policies and transport