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Rock
A naturally formed solid mixture of one or more minerals or organic matter or volcanic glass
Igneous Rock
formed from solidified molten magma or lava
intrusive igneous rock
igneous rock formed below Earth's surface, solidified magma larger crystals
extrusive igneous rock
Rock formed when lava cools above the surface of Earth, minuscule crystals
Continental Crust
Where do igneous rocks with abundant concentrations of quartz form?
Oceanic or Deep Continental Crust
Where to Igneous rocks with low amounts of quartz form?
granitic igneous rock
low density, lighter color
basaltic igneous rock
dense, dark-colored rocks
Andesitic Igneous Rock
light or dark, medium sized minerals
Grain Size
Size of mineral crystals in a rock, which depends on the speed of cooling
weathering, erosion, deposition, compaction, cementation
Rock Cycle?
weathering
weather over a long period of time which can break and move rocks
Clasts
bits & pieces of minerals and other rocks in a rock
Pore space
the area between clasts of a rock
How pore space is formed
irregular shaped and/or rounded rocks
Cementation
The process in which minerals precipitate into pore spaces between sediment grains and bind sediments together to form rock.
Detrital Sedimentary Rocks
form from sediments that have been weathered and transported
Biochemical sedimentary rocks
rocks forms from remains of living organisms such as crustacean shells
Sorting Sedimentary Rocks
sorting, clast size, which determines the ability of the carrier to move them.
Foliated rocks
Rocks WITH layers or bands of alternating colors
Non-foliated rocks
Rock WITHOUT layers or bands or alternating colors
how metamorphic rocks form
intense heat and pressure which bends and presses together different layers of rocks
How metamorphic rocks are determined
Texture, grain size, composition, type/level of metamorphism
giant impact theory
a mars shaped planet hit earth, burning the planet, and leftover debris surrounding joined, to orbit around the Sun, AKA the Moon we know today
P waves
AKA 'Primary waves', moves objects up and down, fastest velocity, transverse
S waves
seismic waves that vibrate from side to side as well as up and down, slower than P waves, transverse
Surface waves
a type of seismic wave that forms when P waves and S waves reach Earth's surface and collide
Rayleigh waves
Surface waves that travel in a backward-rotating, elliptical motion, causing both vertical and horizontal ground movement. Can travel through solid, liquid, and gas. result of p- and s- wave interaction. Fourth to arrive. Dangerous.
Love waves
Surface waves that shear the ground in a horizontal direction. Can only travel through solids. caused by interference of multiple s-waves. Third to arrive.
Epicenter
closest location on Earth's surface to earthquake occurance
Seismogram
the record of an earthquake's seismic waves produced by a seismograph
triangulation
Where 3 or more seismic stations use their data and the time between P and S waves to triangulate and focus on the epicenter of an earthquake
Earthquake
sudden movement/vibration of ground due to rocks slopping over enormous gaps in Earth's crust
earth’s layers
what do earthquakes correlate with?
Compressive stress
object is squeezed or shortened
Tension stress
object stretched or lengthened
Shear stress
different parts of object pushed on opposing directions
ice age
any period of time during which glaciers covered a large part of the earth's surface
glacial
minor ice ages
Icehouse period
A period of time when Earth's temperature was relatively cool and ice ages could occur (lower sea level & severe life struggles); 30% of geologic history
Hothouse period
A period of time when Earth's temperature was much hotter and there would be no ice (higher sea level & bursts of life); 70% of geologic history
ice cores
cylinders of ice drilled out from glaciers and polar ice sheets; shows gas concentrations of years in the pasts
tree rings
tree growth is influenced by climate conditions, patterns in tree rings and isotopic composition of materin within each ring reflect variations in past climate
ocean sediments
layers of sediment build up trapping evidence of past climates which can be drilled into and analysed to investigate past climatic conditions according to makeup of plankton or other microscopic creatures
corals
sr/ca concentration a ___'s skeleton can determine the climate and temperature at specific times in the past
Combustion equation for methane
CH4+2O2=CO2+2H2O
pyrolysis
the decomposition of solid organic matter by heat
chemiluminescence
electrons moving to outer energy levels and back and emit usually blue light
Oxidation
A chemical change in which a substance combines with oxygen, as when iron oxidizes, forming rust
Incandescence
soot gets so hot that it burns, producing visible light in colors such as red, orange, yellow
Carbon Cycle
Cycling of CO2 into and out of the Atmosphere
Carbon Source
releases carbon into the atmosphere
carbon sink
removes carbon from the atmosphere
Slow moving carbon
cycle of moving carbon over hundreds of millions of years; air sea gas exchange, sedimentary rock formation; decay
Fast moving carbon
cycles of moving carbon taking place daily that affects cycles going on over centuries or decades; breathing, photosynthesis, cellular respiration
Greenhouse effect
Natural situation in which heat is retained in Earth's atmosphere by carbon dioxide, methane, water vapor, and other gases
Global Warming Potential (GWP)
potential for a greenhouse gas (GHG) to absorb and hold in IR over a set amount of time
absolute or radiometric dating
using isotopes, half lives, decay, to determine the exact age of a rock, commonly with carbon-14
Why Carbon-14 is used for absolute dating
carbon-14 has a shorter half life and is in all biotic/living things & converts to N-14 which allows researchers to find ratios for younger fossils and rocks
Mass number
sum of protons and neutrons in an atom
Atomic number
number of protons in nucleus
isotope
atoms with varying numbers of neutrons different to regular amount
Beta decay
Neutron splits into 1 proton and 1 electron, electron leaves, additional proton causes atomic # to go up by 1
Alpha decay
2 neutrons and 2 protons leave, which decreases atomic # by 2, and Mass# by 4
electron capture
an electron joins a proton and forms a neutron; 1 less proton and one more neutron; decreases atomic #
the density increases
What happens to the material’s density when the velocity of the seismic wave increases
the density decreases
What happens to the material’s density when the velocity of the seismic wave decreases
Helium
what atom does alpha decay release
becomes a daughter isotope
what happens to a parent isotope after alpha decay
What is relative dating with proxy data
Learning about processes happening now that have also happened in the past with evidence for this
abiotic factors for climate change
sunlight, temperature, water/precipitation
superposition
oldest layers are on the bottom, newest on the top
original horizontality
any unaffected layers should be completely horizontal and flat
lateral continuity
when layers expand out until they taper off
fossil succession
layers with older fossils are below layers with newer fossils
law of inclusion
pieces of rocks are younger than the rocks surrounding them
crosscutting
anything cutting into a layer or a fault formation is younger than the rocks it cuts
pangea
supercontinent formed 300-200 MYA when all continents crashed together
plate tectonics
controlled by currents, pieces of the lithosphere crust collide, separate, and slide past each other to form geologic features
divergent boundary
plates move away from each other; forms rift valleys, trenches, underground & above ground volcanoes, ridges, canyons
convergent boundary
plates collide into each other; forms mountain ranges, volcanoes, islands
transform boundary
plates slide past each other; no rock is lost
oceanic continental convergent
oceanic submerges; forms volcanic arc
oceanic oceanic convergent
denser plate submerges; forms island arc (underwater volcanic arc trench)
continental continental convergent
plates smash and go up; forms high plateau, mountain range
continental continental divergent
forms rift valleys, volcanoes
oceanic oceanic divergent
forms mid ocean ridges
super GHG
methane, CFCs, super high GWP
coal, other fossil fuels
formed from decaying organic material
Earth’s tilt
Earth constantly alters position when orbiting the sun, causing it to receive differing amounts of energy, cycle takes around 40,000 years to complete
Earth’s Precession
earth spins like a top, takes around 21,000 years to complete
Earth’s orbit
changes from circular to elliptical to circular, takes around 100,000 years to complete
Solar Radiation
Forms sunspots and causes radiation, takes around 11 years to complete
Volcanoes
Cause of volcanic eruptions and giant ones create imbalances in Earth’s radiative balance, takes around 12 years to complete