RESEARCH METHODS FINAL

3-D graph

A graph with artificial depth (not recommended).

Actionable insights

Findings directly tied to decisions or action steps.

Analogy

Comparing unfamiliar ideas to familiar ones.

Anchoring bias

Fixating on the first piece of information.

Area graph

A filled line graph showing volume/change.

Audience analysis

Understanding audience needs and biases.

Audience-centric planning

Building the report based on the audience, not the data.

Auditory learners

People who learn best through sound.

Bar graph

Graph comparing categories using bars.

Confirmation bias

Seeking only evidence that supports prior beliefs.

Conformity bias

Influenced by group beliefs or pressure.

Data

Raw facts or numbers.

Data-centric planning

Starting with data instead of audience needs.

Data clarity

Making data easily understandable.

Data visualization

Showing data visually (graphs, tables, charts).

Demonstration

Showing how something works.

Desired audience effect

The outcome you want the audience to feel/do.

Ethos

Credibility.

Executive summary

One-page summary of findings & recommendations.

Facts

Objective truths.

Findings nondisclosure

Unethical hiding of findings.

Geograph

Map-based data visualization.

Graph

Visual display of data.

Infographic

Visual summary combining text + graphics.

Information

Data given meaning.

Insight

Interpretation that explains why the data matters.

Jargon

Technical terms not understood by a general audience.

Kinesthetic learners

People who learn by doing.

Language level

Complexity of words used.

Logos

Logical appeal.

Loss-aversion bias

Stronger reaction to losses than gains.

Management report

Business-focused research report.

Metaphor

Comparison saying one thing is another.

Pathos

Emotional appeal.

Performance anxiety

Nervousness during presentations.

Pictograph

Graph using images instead of bars.

Pie graph

Circular chart showing proportions.

Predispositions

Audience beliefs and attitudes before the presentation.

Report framework

Structural outline of the report.

Research report

Formal document presenting findings.

Research reporting

Communication of research results.

Report structure

Organizational layout of the report.

Statistics

Numerical summaries of data.

Story

Narrative used in a presentation.

Support materials

Graphs, examples, data tables.

Survivorship bias

Only considering successful cases.

Table

Data arranged in rows and columns.

Technical report

Detailed, data-heavy research document.

Testimony / expert opinion

Quotes from specialists.

Tone

The emotional/attitudinal quality of writing or speaking.

Visualize

Turning insights into visuals.

Visual learners

People who learn best through visuals.

Whitespace

Empty space enabling focus in visuals.

A priori contrasts

Planned comparisons between groups made before analyzing data.

Alternative hypothesis (H₁)

The statement suggesting a real effect or difference exists.

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

A statistical test that compares means across 3+ groups.

Bayesian statistics

A statistical approach that incorporates prior beliefs into probability.

Chi-square test

A test used with categorical (nominal) data to compare frequencies.

Classical statistics

Traditional probability-based statistical methods.

Critical value

The cutoff point used to decide whether to reject the null hypothesis.

F ratio

The test statistic in ANOVA; variance between groups / variance within groups.

Inferential statistics

Methods used to make conclusions about a population from a sample.

K-independent-samples tests

Tests comparing 3+ independent groups (nonparametric).

K-related-samples tests

Tests comparing 3+ related/matched groups.

Level of significance (α)

The probability threshold for rejecting the null (commonly .05).

Mean square

ANOVA term: variance estimate (sum of squares / degrees of freedom).

Multiple comparison tests

Tests used after ANOVA to identify which groups differ.

Nonparametric tests

Tests used when data are nominal/ordinal or not normally distributed.

Normal probability plot

Graph to check if data follow a normal distribution.

Null hypothesis (H₀)

The statement that there is no effect or no difference.

Observed significance level (p-value)

Probability of results occurring if H₀ is true.

One-sample tests

Tests comparing one sample to a population value.

One-tailed test

A directional test predicting the direction of difference or effect.

p-value

Probability of obtaining the observed results if the null hypothesis is true.

Parametric tests

Tests requiring normality, equal variances, and interval/ratio data.

Power of the test

Ability to detect a real effect (1 – probability of Type II error).

Practical significance

Whether results matter in the real world (not just statistically).

Region of acceptance

Range where H₀ is not rejected.

Region of rejection

Range where H₀ is rejected.

Statistical significance

A result unlikely to be due to chance.

t distribution

Probability distribution used for t-tests with smaller samples.

Trials

Individual events or measurements in a study.

t-test

A test comparing means between groups (independent or related).

Two-independent-samples tests

Tests comparing two distinct groups.

Two-related-samples tests

Tests comparing matched or paired groups.

Two-tailed test

Test checking for any difference (not directional).

Type I error

Rejecting H₀ when it is actually true (false positive).

Type II error

Failing to reject H₀ when it is false (false negative).

Z distribution

Standardized normal distribution.

Z test

Statistical test using Z-scores, usually for large samples.

Artifact correlations

Correlations caused by a measurement problem, not a real relationship.

Bivariate correlation analysis

Examining the relationship between two variables.

Bivariate normal distribution

Assumption required for Pearson correlation.

Chi-square-based measures

Association measures for nominal data (e.g., Cramer’s V).

Contingency coefficient C

A measure of association for nominal data.

Cramer’s V

A normalized chi-square association measure (0–1).

Phi (φ)

A correlation measure for 2×2 tables.

Coefficient of determination (R²)

% of variance in Y explained by X.

Concordant

Pair in which values move in the same direction.

Discordant

Pair in which values move in opposite directions.