Joseph II and Enlightened Despotism: Reforms and Resistance (SEh

What is 'enlightened despotism'?

A form of monarchy where rulers embrace Enlightenment-inspired reforms while maintaining absolute authority, often enforcing reforms in a top-down, authoritarian manner.

What was Joseph II's approach to reform during his rule?

He attempted utilitarian reforms for the greatest good, enforced reforms with an authoritarian style, and prioritized uniformity over regional autonomy.

What distinguishes Joseph II from Frederick II of Prussia and Catherine II of Russia?

Joseph II had 'Josephinism'/'Josephism' named after him, while Frederick and Catherine are often styled 'the Great'.

What was the Treaty of Teschen (1779) significant for Joseph II?

It marked the last humiliation Joseph suffered under his mother, Maria Theresa, who opposed many of his ideas.

What frustrations did Joseph II face during his co-regency with Maria Theresa?

He was largely a figurehead with limited authority, excluded from affairs in Hungary, Lombardy, and the Netherlands, leading to immense frustration.

How did Joseph II's relationship with Maria Theresa affect his reform agenda?

Their clashes over reform issues, particularly religious toleration, fueled his frustration and desire for change.

What was notable about Joseph II's personal life?

He had no male heir and was twice widowed.

What titles did Joseph II hold during his lifetime?

King of the Romans (1764) and Holy Roman Emperor (1765).

How many edicts did Joseph II issue on average per year?

He issued an average of 690 edicts per year, compared to Maria Theresa's 100.

What was Joseph II's commitment to Enlightenment ideals?

He embraced utilitarianism, believed in mutual responsibility between state and people, and aimed for thorough reforms.

What was Joseph II's approach to traditional powers like the nobility and Church?

He dismissed them as 'instruments of privilege' obstructing reform, breaking with consensus politics.

How did Joseph II handle opposition to his reforms?

He had a harsh and humiliating approach to dissent, contrasting with his predecessors' more lenient methods.

What is 'Cameralism' in the context of Joseph II's reforms?

A view of the commonwealth as a 'machine' with the ruler as the 'artificer', focusing on resource management and societal well-being.

What was the Central European Aufklärung?

An emphasis on rational, state-led reform from above, supported by intellectuals, focusing on the welfare of subjects.

What was Joseph II's belief regarding the role of the state and the people?

He believed in mutual responsibility between the state and the people.

What characterized Joseph II's drive for reform?

An obsessive compulsiveness aimed at thorough reforms, rarely differentiating between essential and ideal goals.

What was the significance of Joseph II's travels during his co-regency?

He toured his dominions to receive petitions and understand the needs of his subjects.

What was Joseph II's attitude towards consensus politics?

He broke with it by not consulting traditional powers and insisting on his own correctness.

How did Joseph II's reforms reflect Enlightenment principles?

His reforms included secularization, reduced censorship, and religious tolerance, inspired by Enlightenment thinkers.

What was the impact of Joseph II's reforms on regional autonomy?

He prioritized uniformity over regional autonomy, often enforcing reforms without local input.

What was the general perception of Joseph II's reform methods?

His methods were seen as harsh and spiteful, contrasting with the more conciliatory approaches of his predecessors.

What legacy did Joseph II leave regarding enlightened despotism?

He is often viewed as a key figure in the application of enlightened despotism, with a focus on radical reforms.

What diplomatic actions did Joseph II take in 1781 to secure his position?

He formed an alliance with Catherine II of Russia and made a diplomatic visit to Louis XVI.

What were the main censorship reforms introduced by Joseph II in 1781?

He reduced literary censorship, allowing publications unless they were blasphemous, subversive, or immoral, and centralized censorship under Gottfried van Swieten, reducing prohibited titles from over 4,000 to approximately 900 annually.

What was the significance of the Edict of Toleration issued in October 1781?

It granted Protestants and Orthodox Christians rights to private worship, land ownership, education access, and civil service roles, reflecting Enlightenment ideals.

What changes did Joseph II implement regarding Jewish rights in May 1781?

He improved educational and vocational access for Jews and removed discriminatory requirements such as distinctive clothing and a head tax.

What were the outcomes of Joseph II's church reforms and secularization efforts?

He suppressed monastic orders not contributing to society, established state control over the church, required bishops to swear allegiance to the crown, and professionalized the clergy with modern curricula.

How did Joseph II's judicial reforms professionalize the judiciary?

He required legal professionals to have formal training and exams, increased judges' salaries to reduce corruption, and introduced a General Civil Code in 1786.

What were the key features of the General Civil Code introduced by Joseph II?

It established equality before the law, abolished torture (except in extreme cases), and minimized capital punishment.

What legal aid was provided to peasants in September 1781?

Peasants were given free legal aid against landlords.

What was the significance of the Emancipation Patent granted in November 1781?

It abolished serfdom in Bohemia, granting rights such as land ownership and the freedom to marry and trade.

What agrarian reforms did Joseph II introduce in 1783?

The 'Directive Regulation' allowed peasants to pay fees instead of labor on landlords' lands, promoting wage labor.

What was the outcome of the Transylvanian Peasant Rebellion in 1784?

Led by Vasile Nicula Horia, 30,000 Romanian peasants revolted, and Joseph II responded with minimal violence, using Orthodox priests to calm the situation.

What tax reform did Joseph II implement in 1789?

He reduced taxes on rustical land from 70% to 30%.

How did Joseph II's reforms reflect Enlightenment ideals?

His reforms aimed at reducing censorship, promoting religious toleration, establishing legal equality, and improving the rights of peasants.

What was the impact of Joseph II's reforms on the Catholic Church?

His reforms angered the Church, leading to resistance from religious leaders and local officials.

What were the consequences of Joseph II's marriage and divorce reforms?

Divorce was made easier, and marriages could be conducted secularly.

What was the role of Gottfried van Swieten in Joseph II's censorship reforms?

He centralized censorship under his authority.

What was the reaction of Pope Pius VI to Joseph II's reforms?

He visited Vienna in protest against the reforms.

What was the impact of Joseph II's reforms on the nobility?

Nobles faced harsher penalties under the General Civil Code, reflecting a shift towards equality before the law.

What was the purpose of the cadasters initiated in 1784?

They were land surveys intended to improve tax collection and land management.

How did Joseph II's reforms affect the relationship between the state and the church?

His reforms established state supremacy over the church, limiting papal influence and centralizing diocesan control.

What was the outcome of the monastic suppression from 1781 to 1783?

738 of 2047 abbeys were confiscated, with funds redirected to social services.

What was the public reception of Joseph II's reforms?

While they gained support from intellectuals, they were unpopular among Catholics and faced resistance.

What approach did Joseph II take to quell violence during his reign?

He responded with minimal violence, using Orthodox priests to calm peasants.

What significant reform was introduced in 1785 during Joseph II's reign?

The 1785 Urbarium addressed grievances after leaders were executed.

What was the official language mandated by Joseph II for administration and education?

German was mandated as the official language for administration and all education from secondary schools up.

How did the German language policy affect regional identities?

It was perceived as an attack on regional identities, especially among Hungarians and Slavs.

What was the consequence for civil servants who did not learn German?

Civil servants were given three years to learn German or risk losing their jobs.

What were some intrusions into private life during Joseph II's reign?

Intrusions included prohibitions on headstones to conserve timber and travel restrictions on young noblemen.

What areas did Joseph II show interest in regarding public welfare?

He showed interest in public health and medicine.

What initial image did Joseph II project that garnered broad support?

He was seen as an 'enlightened reformer,' winning support from intellectuals and civil officials.

What reforms caused anger among the Catholic hierarchy during Joseph II's reign?

Religious tolerance and secularization reforms angered the Catholic hierarchy.

What was the impact of Joseph II's administrative overhaul on provincial elites?

The centralization of administration marginalized local elites and alienated them.

What was the Unified Land Tax Reform of 1789 perceived as by the nobility?

It was seen as a confiscation of ancestral rights and an existential threat.

What intensified nationalist sentiments in Hungary during Joseph II's reign?

The German-only policy intensified nationalist sentiments.

What was the response of the devout Catholic population in the Austrian Netherlands to Joseph II's reforms?

They found the toleration edict unacceptable, leading to widespread civil disobedience and protests.

What significant event escalated to armed conflict in the Austrian Netherlands?

The Belgian Revolution of 1789 escalated from civil disobedience and protests.

What was Joseph II's response to dissent during his reign?

He rarely convened estates, tightened censorship, and used secret police to monitor dissent.

What foreign policy failure involved an attempt to exchange the Austrian Netherlands for Bavaria?

The Bavarian Exchange Attempt failed due to opposition from Prussia and German states.

What was the outcome of Joseph II's war with the Ottomans?

The war strained military resources and exacerbated internal dissent.

How did Prussia interfere during Joseph II's reign?

Prussia backed anti-Habsburg elements in Hungary and the Austrian Netherlands, intensifying unrest.

What events marked the intensification of domestic revolt during Joseph II's reign?

A tax revolt in the Austrian Netherlands in 1787 and subversion stirred by Prussia in 1789.

What declaration did the Belgian estates make on January 31, 1790?

The Belgian estates declared independence.

What significant action did Joseph II take on January 28, 1790?

He rescinded most Hungarian laws and decrees, retaining only three, including religious toleration.

What was Joseph II's planned epitaph?

"Here lies a prince who despite his best efforts was unsuccessful in everything he undertook."

What were the consequences of Joseph II's reforms?

His well-intentioned but uncompromising policies resulted in extensive resistance and opposition, undermining his own reforms.

What challenges did Leopold II inherit upon becoming ruler?

He inherited a crisis with Belgium independent, Hungary near secession, domestic unrest, and an overstretched military.

How did Leopold II's approach differ from Joseph II's?

Leopold II was willing to compromise and open to constitutional checks, unlike Joseph II.

What were some key reforms and policy reversals made by Leopold II?

He disbanded the tax commission, lifted the peasant tax cap, repealed Tyrol conscription, restored some monasteries, and allowed free negotiation for peasant labor.

What was the significance of the Reichenbach Convention in July 1790?

It secured Prussian agreement not to support rebels or attack, stabilizing Leopold II's position.

What did the Treaty of Sistova (1791) accomplish?

It established peace with the Ottomans, allowing Leopold II to focus on internal issues and secured his title as Holy Roman Emperor.

What enlightened policies did Leopold II maintain from Joseph II's reforms?

He preserved peasant personal freedom, a humane legal system, secularized education, reduced censorship, and religious tolerance.

What impact did Leopold II's reign have on the Habsburg Monarchy?

His short but stabilizing reign managed complex challenges and helped solidify Joseph's 'mythic legacy' as an enlightened ruler.

What were the economic developments in the Habsburg Monarchy during the late 18th century?

There was significant economic growth in agriculture, industry, and trade, along with improved transportation and protective tariffs.

How did trade policy evolve in the Habsburg Monarchy?

There were protective tariffs against Silesian goods, liberal trade reforms eliminating internal tolls, and the establishment of a customs union.

What was the state of industrial growth in the Habsburg Monarchy?

Industrial growth took off in Bohemia, Moravia, and Lower Austria, with worker numbers doubling or quintupling and textile manufacturing expanding.

What role did Trieste play in the Habsburg economy?

Trieste became the primary Adriatic hub for trade, supporting global trade ventures.

What demographic changes occurred in the Habsburg Monarchy by the late 18th century?

Population growth and urbanization occurred due to industrial expansion, with 15% of Erblande's 9 million living in cities.

What was the annual revenue of the Habsburg Monarchy in 1788 compared to Prussia and Britain?

The annual revenue was nearly twice that of Prussia and comparable to Britain.

What was the significance of the Illyrian Chancery created by Leopold II?

It was created for Protestants and Serbs, expanding representation for burghers in the Diets.

What was the impact of Leopold II's removal of government-mandated Robot commutation?

It allowed free negotiation, which primarily benefited landlords.

How did Leopold II address the situation in Hungary during his reign?

He convened the Diet, restored magnate privileges, and appeased Serbs by merging Croatian and Hungarian Diets.

What was the effect of Leopold II's diplomatic efforts on Belgium?

He exploited divisions within Belgium to restore control by repudiating Joseph's decrees.

What was the state of the Habsburg Monarchy's economy compared to other major European states?

The economy was robust and comparable to other major European states, with significant growth in various sectors.

What was the significance of the reforms in transportation during the late 18th century?

Improved transportation through river dredging and road construction facilitated economic growth and trade.

What demographic changes occurred in Hungary due to rural manufacturing?

Hungary's population nearly tripled as property-poor peasants began earning wages.

What challenges arose from the rising population in Hungary?

The rising population impacted food supply, leading to higher prices and lower meat consumption in Vienna.

What reforms were implemented to support the workforce and food distribution in Hungary?

Reforms included the abolition of serfdom and the removal of guild privileges.

What was the nature of Maria Theresa's patronage of the arts?

Maria Theresa provided modest patronage, supporting composers like Salieri and Gluck, and establishing Vienna as a center for symphonic music.

How did Joseph II contribute to the arts during his reign?

Joseph II commissioned works from Mozart, including Abduction from the Seraglio and allowed Marriage of Figaro, and appointed Mozart as Kammer Kompositor in 1787.

What role did private patronage play in the careers of artists during this period?

Private patronage was essential for artists' careers, providing funding and connections, benefiting composers like Gluck, Dittersdorf, and Beethoven.

How did concert culture change during Joseph II's reign?

Concert culture became more accessible to the middle classes through public subscription concerts, which Mozart capitalized on.

What developments occurred in cultural infrastructure during this time?

There was an expansion of educational and printing opportunities, with the number of printing presses tripling and an increase in newspapers and reading clubs.

What was the role of Freemasonry and intellectual societies in this period?

Freemasonry and intellectual societies attracted influential individuals for reform-oriented discussions, indirectly supporting Joseph II's policies.

What characterized the administrative and political complexity of the Habsburg Monarchy?

The Habsburg Monarchy lacked a unified state and remained a collection of distinct political entities, with Hungary divided into a diet-focused north and a compliant south.

How did Maria Theresa and her successors promote vernacular languages?

They promoted local 'peasant languages' in schools and government, sparking early national awakenings, although loyalty to the monarchy remained primary.

What was the significance of the 1713 Pragmatic Sanction?

It unified the territories under one sovereign and fostered a professional, German-speaking civil service, integrating ethnic groups and creating a shared elite culture.

What was the size of the Habsburg military by 1790?

By 1790, the Habsburg military reached 497,000 troops, making it Europe's largest standing army.

What were the main outcomes of the Habsburg Monarchy's evolution?

The monarchy emerged with an organized bureaucracy, elite intellectual class, and vast military, preparing it for the Industrial Revolution and new cultural challenges.