English Language Paper 2- Language Diversity and Change

Standard English

Form of English generally considered acceptable at school, as reflected in textbooks and grammar instruction.

slang

an informal, often short-lived kind of language used in place of standard words

dialect

A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciation.

taboo

lexical choices which can be deemed to be offensive. Swearing etc

Technology influenced words and phrases

There is evidence that certain social groups use words and phrases in their speech which are normally associated with written technology forms such as tweets, texts and other forms of instant messages.

neologisms

Made-up words that typically have only meaning to the individual who uses them.

Occupational register

A technical vocabulary associated with a particular occupation or activity

received pronunciation

The dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in London and now considered standard in the United Kingdom.

regional accent

The way you pronounce certain words depending on where you live

accent

variation in pronunciation associated with a particular geographical region

idiomatic phrases

A phrase that has an accepted and known meaning that is different from the dictionary definition of each individual word

social mobility

a phrase that is used to describe a persons move from one social class or level to another.

code switching

occurs when a bilingual speaker will use and alternate between different languages while talking

unmarked by person

when subject/verb agreement is not met

multiple negation

when a sentence or utterance contains more than one negative

plural marking

The method of making a singular noun into its plural form

unmarked plurality

when a singular form of a noun is used rather than the plural

dialect levelling

The process by which language forms of different parts of the country converge and become more similar over time, with the loss of regional features and reduced diversity of language

Polari

A form of theatrical slang incorporating Italianate words, rhyming slang, and Romany, used especially by homosexuals.

Lavender language

the special dialect and vocabulary of the language of the gay community

diachronic change

The historical development of language

prescriptivism

The view that there is a right and a wrong way to speak a language and that there are certain correct forms that should be used.

descriptivism

the view that no use of language is incorrect and that variation should be acknowledged and recorded rather than corrected

synchronic change

The study of language change at a particular moment in time.

Coinage (neologism)

A new word, usually one invented on the spot.

Borrowing/loan words

Borrowing of words/concepts from other languages. Words are either anglicised (so that we no longer recognise them as loan words) or they may retain their original spelling or phonology

Compounding

words are combined to create new words

clipping

A new word created by shortening an existing one, e.g. phone.

blending

combining individual phonemes to form words or combining onsets and rimes to make syllables, then combining syllables to make words.

acronym

A word formed from the first letter of each word in a series

Initialism

an abbreviation consisting of initial letters pronounced separately

affixation

process of forming words by adding affixes to morphemes

Conversion or functional shift

A word shifts from one word class to another, usually from a noun to a verb.

eponym

a disease, structure, operation, or procedure named for the person who discovered or described it first

back formation

A verb is created from an existing noun by removing a suffix

inkhorn terms

Foreign borrowing into English considered unnecessary or overly pretentious

Change from above or conscious changes

change that is usually initiated by those in a dominant social position or occupying a position of power and authority; usually in line with standard or 'correct' forms of usage and linked to prestige forms of language

Change from below or unconscious changes

This is where change is driven by users of a language, developing or adapting language according to their own social need; often initially appearing in vernacular forms that may be introduced by any social class (N.B. this will be the most common way in which semantic change occurs)

neosemy

The process whereby a new meaning develops for an existing word

Generalisation/broadening

The meaning of a word broadens so that it retains its old meaning but also takes on added meaning(s).

Specialising/narrowing

The opposite of broadening - a word becomes more specific in meaning

Amelioration

the act of making something better; improvement

Pejoration

the process by which a word degenerates, acquiring new connotations over time

Weakening/bleaching

The loss or reduction of the force of meaning of a word.

Metaphor

A comparison without using like or as

Euphemism

An indirect, less offensive way of saying something that is considered unpleasant

Polysemy

having many possible meanings or interpretations

external factors

external pressure will affect how language is used either social, cultural and technological

internal factors

aspects of the language itself contribute to change

Stative verb

A verb for a state of being, a thought, or an emotion.

→ is / was / will be

→ thinks

→ feels

→ believes

→ likes

Damp spoon syndrome

Language deteriorates as we are lazy with it.

Assimilation

sounds that are adjacent to each other become similar with one sound moving towards the other to make pronunciation easier

omission

The act of leaving out or neglecting sounds may be left out eg when speaking fast

Neatening or Regularisation

Language undergo neatening so that anomalies and inconsistencies are smoothed out.

- Plural (s)

- 'Snuck' used less frequently than 'sneaked.'

L1

first language

L2

second language

World Englishes

Varieties of English spoken and written in many different countries around the world.

English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

English used as a contact language between speakers of different first languages

wave model

The closer a speaker is to the start of a change in language, the more likely they are to adopt the change. (Can be socially or geographically)

s curve model

Language change is slow at first, before rapidly increasing in speed as it catches on, before slowing again as it gradually becomes integrated in our normal language

Caxton - printing press

1476, william caxton and led to the standardisation process.