Final Exam Review

Questions & Examples from Review

Determine whether the following passage contains an argument:

“Here’s how you make chocolate milk. Warm up a cup of milk in the microwave for two minutes, then add two tablespoons of chocolate. Stir it up, then stick it back in the microwave for another 30 seconds. Then you can enjoy it.”

NO argument because it is only a set of instructions.

Identify the part of the below statement that makes it a strong inductive argument.

“Tina may have trouble buying a house, since her credit score is below 400.”

Premise: her credit score is below 400

Conclusion: Tina may have trouble buying a house

Identify the part of the below statement that makes it a strong inductive argument.

“Rachel is a professional dancer, so we can assume that Rachel practices several hours a day.”

Premise: Rachel is a professional dancer; Conclusion: Rachel practices several hours a day.

Determine whether the following passage contains an argument and, IF it does, identify the premise.

“You’d better not pet that dog. She looks friendly, but she’s been known to bite.”

Argument Present

Premise: She has been known to bite. The unstated, or implicit, conclusion is that the listener should not pet the dog.

Which formal fallacy is represented by the below statement?

“If your are rich, then your car is something like a Mercedes or a Bentley. Oh! Is that your Bentley, you must be rich”

This statement exemplifies the fallacy of Affirming the Consequent, where one assumes the converse of a conditional statement is true.

Which fallacy is represented in the below statement?

“Roomate 1: The other day you your dirty dishes in the sink, please wash them or put them in the dishwasher. Roomate 2: Well, you leave your shoes wherever you feel like it, whenever you feel like it.”

Argumentum Ad Hominem

What type of fallacy is at play in the below statement?

“You can’t exit from that door . . . why not it’s the closest onr to our table, besides I’ve seen our waiter use it twice. Because that door is for staff only, there’s a big sign on it that says so.”

Accident Fallacy

Which fallacy is represented in the following statement?

“You should vote for the new parking garage! If we don’t build it, people won’t have a place to park.”

False Dilemma: Suggesting only two options exist—either support the parking garage or face a lack of parking—ignoring other possible solutions.

Which fallacy is represented in the following statement?

“High speed rail travel between here and Houston is something we should support. Unless you can explain to me why you shouldn’t.”

Misplacing the burden of proof

This fallacy occurs when you assume what you’re actually trying to prove.

Begging the Question

Which of the following Moral Theories focuses mainly on consequences?

Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges the rightness or wrongness of actions based on their outcomes, emphasizing the importance of the results of those actions.

Which Moral Theory focuses mainoly on how to be, not on what to do?

Virtue Ethics is an ethical theory that emphasizes the character and virtues of the moral agent, prioritizing moral character over rules or consequences.

Which of the following legal reasoning would be a justification for a law against flag burning?

Offence Principle; this principle states that the state can limit freedom of expression if it prevents harm to others.

Which moral theory would probably justify the below action?

“Should doctors help their terminally ill patients commit suicide by prescribing lethal doses of medication”

Utilitarianism; it focuses on actions that maximize happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people.

Which moral theory would probably justify the below action?

“Should I quit school and work part-time as a bartender? I’ll make a lot less money and leave talents undeveloped, but it’ll give me more free time”

Consequentialism (moral egoism); it evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes, weighing personal benefits against potential consequences.

“___________” is a moral theory that suggests something is right or wrong of the beliefs of one’s culture or group.

Moral Relativism. This theory posits that moral standards are not universal but instead vary between cultures and societies.

“________” reasoning is any reasoning that aims at defending or critizing a judjgment about art.

Aesthetic reasoning; it involves evaluating artistic works based on criteria such as beauty, emotional impact, and cultural significance.

Which legal principle is a justification for laws against actions that harm other people?

The Harm Principle; it asserts that individual liberty should only be restricted to prevent harm to others.

Which legal principle is a justification for laws against actions that harms the person who commits it?

The Legal Paternalism Principle; it permits interference with a person's liberty if it is believed to prevent harm to themselves.

Which legal principle is a justification for laws against actions that is deemed immoral?

Legal Moralism; it supports the enactment of laws to prohibit behavior that society considers immoral, regardless of potential harm to others.

Identify whether the following statements is an Argument from Analogy or an Analogy that is not an argument.

“Historically, the market goes up when the employment situation worsens and goes down when it gets better. Right now, there is bad news on employment, and the latest statistics show unemployment is getting worse. This could be a good time to buy stocks.”

Analogy that is NOT an argument. It draws a comparison based on historical trends but does not provide a logical basis for the conclusion about stock buying. The statement suggests a pattern without establishing a causal or justificatory link.

Identify whether the following statements is an Argument from Analogy or an Analogy that is not an argument.

"Yamaha makes great motorcycles. I’ll bet their pianos are pretty good, too.”

Argument from Analogy. This statement draws a comparison between Yamaha motorcycles and pianos, implying that quality in one product may indicate quality in another.

Identify if the following statement is De-generalization (stat syllogism) or Generalization from a sample.

“Costco charges less than Walmart for comparable items. I’ve shopped at both for years.”

Generalization from a sample. This statement uses personal experience of shopping at both stores to infer broader pricing trends between the two retailers.

Identify whether the following statements is an Argument from Analogy or an Analogy that is not an argument.

“Publishing is to thinking as the maternity ward is to the first kiss”

Analogy that is NOT an argument. This statement presents a metaphorical comparison between two unrelated concepts without providing a logical basis for any conclusion.

Which concept of Scientific Generalizing from a sample is a set of criteria that makes it clear for any specific thing whether or not it is a member of the population and whether or not it has the attribute of interest.

Sampling Frame

Identify the Premise-Analogue and the Conclusion Analogue in the following statement.

“Helen is very popular in South Carolina. She’d be just as popular in Alabama, since most voters in both states are southern conservatives.

Premise - Analogue: South Carolina (Helen is popular there - that is the known case)

Conclusion - Analogue: Alabama (The claim is that Helen would also be popular there - that is the case being inferred)

Identify the Premise-Analogue and the Conclusion Analogue in the following statement.

“Eating too much refined sugar is bad for your health. It’s just as bad as smoking cigarettes. Both lead to poorer health outcomes.”

Premise - Analogue: Smoking Cigarettes (it’s an accepted example of something that leads to poor health - used as the basis for comparison)

Conclusion - Analogue: Eating too much refined sugar (The argument is that it’s just as bad, meaning it also leads to poor health outcomes)

Identify the Premise-Analogue and the Conclusion Analogue in the following statement.

“L.L. Bean makes great sheets; I bet they make great bedspreads”

Premise - Analogue: Sheets made by L.L. Bean (known case)

Conclusion - Analogue: Bedspreads by L.L. Bean (guess or inference that they’ll be great)

Identify the Attribute of Interest in the following statement

“I can’t play a baritone; I doubt I could play a Sousaphone.”

Attribute of Interest: The ability to play the instrument

Identify the Attribute of Interest in the following statement

“Let’’s get a Whirlpool washing machine. Their dishwashers are great!”

Attribute of Interest: High product quality or performance

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“Every one of the senators is a politician”

All senators are politicians

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“You can be a senator only if you’re a politician”

All senators are politicians

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“A few senators are not politicians”

Some Senators are not politicians

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“Wherever there are snakes, there are frogs.”

All places there are snakes are places there are frogs.

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“Except for Vice Presidents, nobody got raises.”

All people who got raises are Vice

Transform the Sentence to a Standard Form Structure.

“Salt is a meat preservative”

An example of salt are things that preserve meat.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Philosophers are not the only scholars”

Some scholars are not philosophers

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Every salamander is a lizard.”

All salamanders are lizards.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Elephants are the only members of the suborder Ophidia”

All members of the suborder Ophidia are elephants.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Anything that’s an alligator is a reptile.

All alligators are reptiles.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Wherever there are snakes, there are frogs.”

All places the

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Except for vice presedents, nobody got raises”

All people who got raises are vice presidents.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Socrates is a Greek”

All people identical with Socrates are Greeks.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Students who wrote poor exams didn’t get admitted to the program”

No student who wrote poor exams are students who were admitted to the program.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“There are a few right-handed first basemen”

Some first basemen are right-handed people.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Nobody passed who didn’t make at least 50%.”

All passers are people who made at least 50 percent.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“I’ve had days like this before.”

Some days I’ve had are like this one.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“A few holidays fall on Saturday”

Some holidays are holidays that fall on Saturday.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Unless you pass this test, you won’t pass the course.”

All people who pass the course are people who will pass the test. OR: No people who fail this test are people who will pass the course.

Translate the sentence into a standard form claim

“Only when you’ve paid the fee will they let you enroll”

All times they will let you enroll are times you’ve paid the fee.

Find the claim described, and determine whether it is equivalent to the claim you began with.

“Find the contrapositive of “No Sunnis are Christians”

No non-Christians are non-Sunnis.

Find the claim described, and determine whether it is equivalent to the claim you began with.

“Find the converse of “Some Kurds are not Christians”

Some Christians are not Kurds.

Find the claim described, and determine whether it is equivalent to the claim you began with.

“Find the converse of “All Shiites are Muslims”

All Muslims are Shiites.

Find the claim described, and determine whether it is equivalent to the claim you began with.

“Find the obverse of “No Muslims are Christians”

All Muslims are non-Christians.

Summary Table: Categorical Statements

Find the obverse of “No first baseman are right-handed people”

All first basemen are people who aren’t right-handed.

Determine whether each statement suffers from: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Rooney’s tennis serve is impossible to return”

Vagueness; “impossible to return” is too vague; what does “impossible” mean exactly?

Determine whether each statement suffers from: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Arizona State students drink more beer than Long Beach State Students”

Grouping Ambiguity

Determine whether each statement suffers from: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“You should support the law because it’s fair”

Vagueness; “fair” is vague - it lacks clarity or specifics (not clearly defined)

Determine whether each statement suffers from: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Morgan is absent because' she’s not feeling well.”

Vagueness; “not feeling well” is a vague expression (no specific symptoms or causes)

Determine whether each statement suffers from: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Fixing that tire is the last thing I want to do”

Syntactic Ambiguity

Identify the issue in each statement - is it primarily: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“It’s important that we hire someone experienced”

Vagueness; “experienced” is unclear - how much experience? In what?

Identify the issue in each statement - is it primarily: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“T”They said he was cold”

Semantic Ambiguity; “cold” could mean unfriendly or low body temperature - multiple meanings

Identify the issue in each statement - is it primarily: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“This report covers everything you need to know about climate change”

Generalization; overly broad - “everything” is too sweeping & non-specific

Identify the issue in each statement - is it primarily: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Advanced students only may register for this course”

Ambiguity (Syntactic); awkward sentence structure creates confusion; is it only advanced students who may register, or is it that only the advanced students who may register?

Identify the issue in each statement - is it primarily: Vagueness, Ambiguity (semantic, grouping, or syntactic), Generality

“Some professors at this university are brilliant”

Ambiguity (grouping); it is unclear if this means: some individuals are brilliant or as a group, professors are brilliant on average.

Identify whether each of these is: (an argument from analogy or an analogy that is NOT an argument)

“These shrubs have shiny green leaves, and so does privet. I bet these shrubs keep their leaves in the winter, too.”

Argument from Analogy; It’s not just saying “these are similar” - it is using that similarity to make a guess or conclusion

Identify whether each of these is: (an argument from analogy or an analogy that is NOT an argument)

“You don’t like picnicking? Well, you won’t like camping either. You can’t do either without getting eaten by mosquitoes.”

Argument from Analogy; it’s using a similarity (both involve mosquitoes) to make a point or guess - that you’ll dislike camping just like you dislike picnicking

Identify whether each of these is: (an argument from analogy or an analogy that is NOT an argument)

“Driving fast is playing with fire”

an analogy that is NOT an argument; this isn’t trying to prove or argue something directly; just making a colorful comparison, not trying to convince someone with reasoning or evidence

Identify whether each of these is: (an argument from analogy or an analogy that is NOT an argument)

“She’s no good at tennis. No way she’s good at racquetball”

An argument from analogy; using the comparison between tennis and racquetball to make a point (that she must also be bad at racquetball)

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“Glyphosate causes cancer in rats, and rats are like humans, biologically speaking. So glyphosate will cause cancer in humans too.”

Premise-analogue: rats

Target-analogue: humans

Attribute of Interest: Glyphosate as a cause of cancer

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“Tell you what, this ant poison looks like Windex. I bet we can clean the windows with it.”

Premise-analogue: Windex (what we already know about)

Target-analogue: this ant poison (what we’re trying to draw a conclusion about)

Attribute of Interest: being usable to clean windows (trait being transferred)

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“January’s heating bill will be high, given that December’s was outrageous and January is supposed to be even colder. ‘

Premise-analogue: December’s heating bill

Target-analogue: January’s heating bill

Attribute of Interest: being high

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“Abortion means killing a live person. If abortion is wrong, the so is capital punishment, since it also involves killing a live person.”

Premise-analogue: abortion

Target-analogue: capital punishment

Attribute of Interest: being wrong

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“It’s easy to use an iPad, so it’s bound to be easy to use an Apple Watch. Apple makes them both”

Premise-analogue: IPads

Target-analogue: Apple Watches

Attribute of Interest: being easy to use

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“Odwalla carrot juice takes moldy; I’d bet their orange juice tasts that way as well.”

Premise-analogue: Odwalla carrot juice

Target-analogue: Odwalla orange juice

Attribute of Interest: tasting moldy

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“It’s a good thing auto insurance is mandatory; why is it any different with health insurance?”

Premise-analogue: auto insurance

Target-analogue: health insurance

Attribute of Interest: being a good thing

Identify the premise-analogue, the target analogue, and the attribute of interest.

“You don’t like dancing with the stars? Then don’t bother watching So You Think You Can Dance.”

Premise-analogue: Dancing With The Stars

Target-analogue: So You Think You Can Dance

Attribute of Interest: being something you don’t like

Which of the following are general statements, i.e., statements that refer to members of a population in a non-specific way?

“Danielle is older than Christina”

Not a general statement

Which of the following are general statements, i.e., statements that refer to members of a population in a non-specific way?

“Many small-business owners oppose raising the minimum wage.”

A general statement

Which of the following are general statements, i.e., statements that refer to members of a population in a non-specific way?

“Glasses purchased online may not be satisfactory for your purposes.”

A general statement

Which of the following are general statements, i.e., statements that refer to members of a population in a non-specific way?

“The Toledo Museum isn’t open this evening”

Not a general statement

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples or instantiations?

“Rainbird sprinklers don’t last long, judging from my experience.”

Generalization from a nonrandom sample; the speaker is making a general claim about all Rainbird sprinklers & based on their personal experience - a nonrandom sample

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples or instantiations?

“I don’t think camphor tress are deciduous; at any rate, ours isn’t.”

Generalizing from a nonrandom sample, based on one specific example (their own)

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples or instantiations?

“It’s difficult to find a grocery store in Fresno; the time I was there I looked all over and only found car parts places and liquir stores.”

Generalization from a nonrandom sample; the speaker is making a broad claim based on their own, single experience

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples or instantiations?

“Jorge and Susan are both really bright; after all, they are music majors.”

Instantiating - using a specific example (instance) to support a general claim; the two individuals are used as instances to support or illustrate a broader idea about music majors

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples, instantiation, or neither?

“Here, try this one. It’ll stop your cough. It’s a Breezer.”

Instantiation; it’s talking about a specific exam (this particular medicine called Breezer) & suggesting it will stop your cough. It’s not making a general claim about all medicines or all cough treatments.

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples, instantiation, or neither?

“The local Kia dealership is thriving, which suggests that Kia is doing well nationally.”

Generalization from a nonrandom sample (making a broad claim based on a small or biased group); it takes information from one specific local Kia dealership (a small, nonrandom sample) and tries to apply that to the entire national Kia brand.

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples, instantiation, or neither?

“A majority of Republicans favor immigration reform, and Horace is a Republican. Connect the dots.”

Instantiation (using a specific case to make a point); takes a general claim about a group (most Republicans favor immigration reform) and applies it to one specific person (Horace, a Republican), implying that Horace probably favors immigration refor too.

Is the statement an example of generalizations from nonrandom samples, instantiation, or neither?

“It will still be cool there in June; the elevation at Denver is over 5,000 feet.”

Instantiation (apply a general principle to a specific case); apply a general rule —> specific instance —> draw a conclusion

General Rule (implied): places over 5,000 feet tend to be cool, even in June

Specific Fact (about Denver): Denver is over 5,000 feet in elevation

Conclusion: Therefore, it will be cool in Denver in June

How to tell the difference between Generalizing from a nonrandom sample and Instantiating?

1. Instantiating = “INSTANT rule” → applying it
Think: You already have a rule (even if unstated) and you're applying it to one case.
🧩 Example:

Dogs usually bark → Max is a dog → So Max probably barks.
(You had a general idea and applied it to Max.)

2. Generalizing from a nonrandom sample = “GENERAL rule” is made
Think: You create a rule based on just a few examples — and those examples aren’t diverse or randomly chosen.
🧩 Example:

All the pit bulls I’ve met are mean → So pit bulls are dangerous.
(You're creating a rule from a narrow experience.)

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Don’t waste your time trying to teach that dog to fetch. Otterhounds don’t do that.”

You’re applying a general rule — “Otterhounds don’t fetch” — to a specific case — “this dog is an Otterhound.”
So, you’re concluding: don’t bother trying to teach this dog to fetch.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Dr. Walker belongs to the ACLU, and most people who belong to the ACLU are liberals.”

General rule: Most people who belong to the ACLU are liberals.

Specific case: Dr. Walker belongs to the ACLU.

Conclusion (implied): So Dr. Walker is probably a liberal.

🔍 This is instantiating because it's applying a generalization about a group (ACLU members are mostly liberals) to a specific individual in that group (Dr. Walker).

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Most members of the NRA are Republicans; therefore, probably York is a Republican.”

Why?

• Generalization given: Most members of the NRA are Republicans.

• Specific individual: Ork is a member of the NRA.

• Conclusion: Therefore, Ork is probably a Republican.

You're taking a general trait about a group (NRA members → mostly Republicans) and applying it to one specific member (Ork). That’s exactly what instantiating means—going from general to specific.

🔁 Tip to remember:

• Instantiating = from group to one.

• Generalizing from a nonrandom sample = from one/few to many.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Verizon provides service to most small towns; so you’ll probably get service in Chabot Gap.”

Here's why:

• General statement: Verizon provides service to most small towns.

• Specific case: Chabot Gap is (implied to be) a small town.

• Conclusion: You'll probably get service in Chabot Gap.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Christine’s probably pretty athletic; she’s a professional dancer.”

Here's why:

• General belief (implied): Professional dancers are usually athletic.

• Specific case: Christine is a professional dancer.

• Conclusion: Christine is probably athletic.

You're applying a general idea (professional dancers are athletic) to a specific individual (Christine), which is instantiating.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Kids around her generally don’t drop out of school, so Jim won’t drop out.”

Why:

• General statement: Kids around here generally don’t drop out of school.

• Specific case: Jim is a kid from around here.

• Conclusion: So, Jim won’t drop out.

You're taking a generalization about a group (kids around here) and applying it to an individual (Jim). That’s exactly what instantiating is.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“I expect it’s going to rain; it usually does when its hot”

Instantiating means:

• You’re using a general rule or pattern (like “it usually rains when it’s hot”)

• To predict or explain a specific case (today’s weather)

In this sentence:

• The speaker assumes a general pattern about hot weather and rain.

• Then uses that to expect (instantiate) that it will rain this time because it’s hot now.

Explain why the statement is an Instantiation.

“Most governors haven’t been good presidents, and Hickenlooper is a governor.”

This example is instantiating because:

• It starts with a general claim: "Most governors haven't been good presidents."

• Then applies that general idea to a specific case: "Hickenlooper is a governor," so probably he won't be a good president.

Identify the sample population, the target population, and the issue addressed.

“Costco’s store-brand coffee tastes as good as any name brand; I’ll bet every store brand product from Costco is as good as the name brand.”

Sample Population: Costco store-brand coffee

Target population: Costco store-brand products.

Issue-addressed: whether 100% of Costco store-brand products are as good as name-brand products.