PSY100 CHAPTER 11

What is sex?

Sex refers to the properties of people that determine their classification as male or female.

What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are the packages of DNA that carry our genes. Typically, humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with one of each pair provided by each parent. The 23rd pair differs across the sexes and is referred to as the sex chromosomes because the pair determines a person's genetic sex. In females, both sex chromosomes are alike and are called X chromosomes because they each look like an X. Males have one X and one Y chromosome— the latter looks similar to an upside-down Y.

What are gonads?

Gonads are glands that produce sex hormones and generate ova (eggs) in females and sperm in males—the cells used in reproduction.

What are the female and male gonads?

Female gonads are the ovaries (located on either side of the abdomen). Male gonads are the testes (located in the scrotum, the pouch of skin that hangs below the penis)

What hormones are higher in male and females?

the hormones estrogen and progesterone are higher in females and the hormones called androgens (the most common being testosterone) are higher in males.

Where is testosterone produced in females and males?

In females, androgens are produced by the adrenal glands, and in males some of the androgens that are produced by the testes are converted into estrogens.

What do hormones influence the development of?

Internal reproductive structures, external genitalia, and the secondary sex characteristics.

What are the roles of internal reproductive organs in males and females?

- In females, these organs allow the ovum to travel from the ovaries to the uterus, and they play roles in sexual functioning, the menstural cycle and pregnancy.

- In males, the internal sex organs include the structures involved in the production and storage of sperm, and they play a role in sexual arousal and orgasm.

What are the external genitalia of females?

- the vulva, include the mons pubis (a fleshy area just above the vagina)

- the labia (the lips surrounding the vaginal opening)

- clitoris (a small sensory organ at the top where the labia meet).

What are the external genitalia of males?

penis and scrotum

What is puberty and what is produced during puberty?

- Puberty is a period of rapid maturation that occurs mainly in early adolescence

- Hormones produced during puberty drive the development of secondary sex characteristics

What are secondary sex characteristics?

- Physical traits that differ between the two sexes but are not part of the reproductive system

- Breasts in females and facial hair in males are examples of secondary sex characteristics.

What is gender?

Gender refers to the social and psychological aspects of being female or male.

- Gender goes beyond biological sex to include a person's understanding of the meaning of being male or female.

What can gender be influenced by?

Gender is a complex variable influenced by biological factors, as well as socialization and other experiences.

Is it discrete and able to be put in confined categories?

No

- Using labels to categorize a person's gender identity has limitations. When asked about their gender identity or expression in a format that allows for more nuanced responses (e.g., in-person interviews or multi-item scales), most people's descriptions are better represented by multiple continuums than discrete, mutually exclusive categories

(think of how the rainbow is a spectrum)

What is gender identity?

An individual's sense of belonging to the male, female, or an alternate gender

Does everyone have the same experience with gender identity?

No

- Gender identity is multifaceted, and individuals vary in their experience of it.

For example, for some people, gender identity is central to their sense of self; some are more comfortable than others with their gender category; and some feel socially encouraged to conform to a particular gender identity

What is gender expression?

How individuals present themselves in terms of their behaviours, interests, and appearance in dimensions related to gender and especially to the continuum from femininity to masculinity.

Do gender identity and gender expression agree in all individuals?

No

- For ex. A non-binary person may identify or express their gender as both male and female or as neither.

What terms do psychologists use to describe masculinity and femininity in relation to gender identity and expression? What do they mean?

- Instrumentality (for more masculine traits) and expressiveness (for more feminine traits) to represent their broad dimensions.

- From a Western perspective, instrumental attributes include being assertive, brave, independent, and dominant and expressive traits include being nurturing, warm, gentle, and sensitive to others

Are the differences for instrumentality and expressiveness clear-cut?

No, although some men may score higher for instrumentality and some women higher for expressiveness, these differences are not as large nor as clear-cut as you might expect

What does the degree of instrumentality or expressiveness a person feels depend on?

The social context and the activity in which someone is engaged.

ex. A father playing with his toddler may feel quite expressive

ex. a player on Canada's women's Olympic hockey team may feel instrumental on the ice.

Is every combination of instrumentality and expressiveness possible? What are some examples?

Androgyny: a person is high on both instrumental and expressive qualities, having attributes that we typically associate with both genders

Undifferentiated: People who are low on both dimensions are referred to as undifferentiated

Are people that are not strongly gender-typed on the scale have better psychological adjustment and resilience?

Yes

- In most cultures, it is good to have a balance between instrumentality and expressiveness relates to a variety of positive outcomes in many cultures

Can people with either genitalia express instrumentality and expressiveness characteristics to varying degrees at the same time?

Yes.

- We might express our gender in the ways we dress, talk, walk, or behave, and this expression may change depending on the situation we are in. Alternatively, gender might be something we carry inside our head and share with only a few close others.

What cause the development of male sexual features?

When males and females are embryos, they look the same.

BUT A particular gene on the Y chromosome, the SRY gene (the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome), is activated during the first three months of pregnancy.

Why does the development of the Y chromosome during the fetal stage matter for males? What happens to females since they don't have it?

Because only males have a Y chromosome, only male fetuses are exposed to the effects of the SRY gene, which causes the development of embryonic testes. The testes then begin to manufacture androgens that spread throughout the developing embryo, influencing the growing body and brain. Through this process, the XY embryo essentially turns itself into a male. Low levels of androgen in a female embryo allow for the development of the female body and brain.

Is sex purely biological?

Yes

Is gender purely biological?

No, prenatal hormones play a role in brain development and we might assume this a firm foundation for male and female but it is not true.

- nature (biological factors) and nurture (experience) in gender development are complex,

What three things can lead to genitalia not being strictly male or female?

- Prenatal hormone exposure

- Chromosomal abnormalities

- Environmental factors (such as exposure to radiation, chemicals, or some medications)

These represent variances of sexual development.

What is VSD? What does congenital mean?

- Variances of sexual development (VSD) are congenital conditions in which the development of chromosomal, gonadal, or anatomical sex is atypical

- Congenital" means these conditions are present from birth.

Why was immediate sex assignment or surgery crucial for ambiguous genitalia decades ago?

It was because they had two assumptions:

- Children cannot develop normally with ambiguous genitalia.

- Gender identity is entirely determined by socialization (nurture), not biological factors (nature)

What was the "John/Joan" case presented by sex researcher John Money?

The "John/Joan" case involved one member of a pair of twin boys. A few months after his birth, the penis of the boy was destroyed during circumcision. Money persuaded the boy's parents to allow him to surgically transform the injured male genitals into female genitals and they agreed to treat the child as a girl from that point on. Reared as a girl, the former boy essentially became a girl, according to Money.

Why was the "John/Joan" case famous back then?

Because it was originally thought to be an example of nurture's triumph over nature.

What did the biologist Milton Diamond later discover about the case?

Diamond found that over time "Joan" had become less and less interested in being a girl, eventually refusing to continue the process of feminization that Money had devised. We now know that "Joan" was really the Canadian David Reimer, whose biography, As Nature Made Him.

What was the conclusion of this case? Should this case be a determinant for all cases about the argument of nature vs nurture?

David's story seems to suggest that biological factors powerfully guide gender identity development and that socialization is relatively unimportant. Yet this one case may not represent the full picture. Remember from Chapter 2 that it is difficult to make generalizations based on a single case study

Is socialization a powerful aspect of how individuals born with genitalia that conflict with their genetic sex develop later in life?

Yes, but not a perfect aspect

For example, one study showed that among genetic males born without a penis (due to a birth defect) and reared as females, 78 percent lived their adult lives as women. Of those who were reared as male, 100 percent of them were living as male

Is it true that individuals would have experienced more stable gender identity if they had been reared as their genetic sex?

No

- This conclusion misses the complexity of the decision facing parents and doctors in these cases. Surgical procedures to construct a penis are difficult, costly, and not always successful.

What is stability of gender identity dependent on?

The stability of sex assignment may depend on genetic and hormonal factors, as well as parental reactions. And, of course, we might ask whether stability is the most important issue for the child. Indeed, the child, whose opinion matters the most to this decision, may not be consulted at all.

What should these decisions be made based on? What is the right approach for treating something with VSD?

Experts agree that these decisions should be made based on the child's well-being, not parental distress. Moreover, the "right" approach for an infant with a VSD may depend on various factors, including the type of variance itself

What is transgender?

Experiencing one's psychological gender as different from one's biological or "natal" (meaning "at birth") sex. Transgender individuals can be genetically and anatomically males (or females) who identify as females (or males).

Is FTM more common than MTF?

Yes

What is cisgender?

Individuals who experience a match between their experienced and natal gender. "Cis-" is the Latin prefix that is the opposite of "trans-."

What does it mean when someone experiences distress over their biological sex?

They may be diagnosed with gender dysphoria.

Dysphoria means discomfort or a lack of positive feelings. Thus, gender dysphoria refers to a person's discomfort with their natal gender.

What is the debate on gender dysphoria?

There is considerable controversy over whether such individuals should be considered as having a disorder at all.

They might, instead, be viewed as experiencing distress because they feel they are living in the wrong body and because they face discrimination and misunderstanding

What is the issue with saying transgender people suffer from a disorder?

The issue of whether transgender individuals are suffering from a disorder is complex and has practical ramifications, as a diagnosis is often required in order to gain insurance coverage for (often costly) treatment.

How do the stages of transitioning work?

Generally, the transition for transgender individuals involves gradual stages that move from reversible treatments to permanent ones. The first stage may involve dressing and living as their preferred gender identity. Then the person might receive hormones that support that identity, followed by surgery to remove secondary sex characteristics (such as breasts), and potentially culminating in gender-affirming surgery, or sex reassignment surgery. This surgery involves the surgical reconstruction of the genitals .The surgical challenges that female-to-male transgender individuals face are more complicated and much more expensive than those for male-to-female transgender people.

Do most people who identify as transgender adopt the opposite sex as gender identity? What are some suggestions people have made about this?

Among youth who identify as the opposite of their biological sex, the majority will ultimately adopt the gender identity of their biological sex; however, some will continue to. Because it is difficult to distinguish these two groups during childhood, some advocate offering medications to delay puberty so that the youth can have a "time-out" from sexual development. This time-out prevents the permanent bodily changes spurred by puberty, giving individuals and their parents greater opportunity to contemplate the path ahead.

What do biological approaches create a link between?

Biological approaches to gender draw links between these factors and one's psychological feelings of gender. (These factor being hormones, gonads, anatomy, and hormones)

Do biological approaches focus solely focus on ONLY biological factors that contribute to gender development?

No, but it also focuses on how these biological factors interact with experience to determine gender development

What are some examples of how researches have examined infants to distinguish if certain characteristics are a result of socialization or biological factors?

- Infant boys are usually larger and more active