Honors Biology Final

Life has few things in common with nonlife. One thing that is in common is what makes everything up. What is the stuff that makes everything up?

Matter… composed of atoms… CHNOPS for living things, organized into molecules

What do all living things have in common?

6 characteristics of life = we’re focused on cellular organization, homeostasis (responds to environment), reproduction & heredity, growth and development, & DNA in this semester (+ metabolism)

The Creator has created an ordered universe. We’ve named the levels within this order. cells – matter – organelle – organs – molecules – organ systems – organism – tissues. Based upon these names, which is the correct order of organization of structure in  multicellular living things, from simplest to complex?

Smallest = matter which organize into…  

molecules 🡪 organelle 🡪 cells 🡪 tissue 🡪 organs 🡪 organ systems  

Largest = organism

Microscopy has helped us to see and understand what’s going on at the cellular level. Who was the first person to observe cork under a microscope and call the individual parts “cells”? 

Robert Hooke

Microscopy has helped us to see and understand what’s going on at the cellular level. Who was responsible for seeing the first living cell? (bacteria)

van Leeuwenhoek

What are the  three parts of  cell theory?

All living things are made up of one or more cells. (you need cells to have life)

Cells are the basic units of structure and function in organisms. (all life needs cell in various arrangements)

All cells (except the cells of Adam, Eve and the rest of what God directly created) arise from other cells.

Cells are broken down into two major groups. What are those groups?

Eukaryotes: Like you and I, animals, plants,  fungus, complex life

Prokaryotes: Bacteria. Simple life

Cells are broken down into two major groups. What is the difference between  those groups? 

Eukaryotes: Have a nucleus. But also have organelle like  mitochondria, Golgi, ER, chloroplasts

Prokaryotes: Do not have a nucleus. But do have the 4  things all living things have see below “shared”

We can differentiate and groups cells together based on structures and functions. What are the three major cell parts that differentiate plant cells from cells like  our (animal cells)?

Plants cells have Chloroplasts (for  

photosynthesis), Cell walls (outside rigidity),  central vacuole (to store water)

Which cell organelle stores carbohydrates?

Vacuole

Which cell organelle packages lipids?

Golgi Apparatus

Which cell organelle digests and breaks down molecules?

Lysosomes

Which cell organelle makes proteins?

Ribosomes

Which cell organelle makes ATP?

Mitochondria

Which cell organelle performs photosynthesis?

Chloroplast

Which cell organelle stores DNA in Eukaryotes?

Nucleus

Sometimes there are multiple names for different  parts in the cell. What are all the synonyms we could use for Cytoplasm?

Cytosol

Sometimes there are multiple names for different  parts in the cell. What are all the synonyms we could use for DNA?

Genetic material

Sometimes there are multiple names for different  parts in the cell. What are all the synonyms we could use for Cell Membrane?

Plasma membrane

Which structure is primarily responsible for creating all the proteins that are used by or  secreted from a cell?

Ribosomes

Which structure is most active in the detoxification process of a cell?

Smooth ER

Which structure is most active in the detoxification process of a cell?

Golgi

Which structure is responsible for producing energy for the cell through cellular respiration?

Mitochondria

 Which is the only structure that will be in every single living cell on earth? 

Ribosomes

 Some single celled organisms have only one mitochondrion.  What can you determine about characteristics of these cells?

They have low energy needs  relative to others.

 Which of the following is a main function of the cell wall?

The cell wall protects the cell, but it also gives the  outside of plant cells rigidity.

Generally, what is the relationship between the shape  of a cell and what it does? 

Structure – function. A cell is able to do what it does because it’s designed that way. Skin cells  build a wall of sorts so they’re like roundish bricks. Nerve cells transmit information so they’re  long and cylindrical, connect with branches. RBCs are round so they can flow through vessels.

 Generally, why are cells so small? 

Small cells are more “efficient” than other cells. This is based on getting things in and out of a  cell.

True or False? Everything we do to maintain life, especially when it comes to homeostasis is done because we  try to, through voluntary action.

False. Heartbeat. Sweating. We can’t control these.

True or False? Examples of homeostasis we must maintain include energy, temperature, and blood sugar.

True.

 Homeostasis is extremely important when we are awake, but it is put on hold when we sleep.

False. It’s always important.

True or False? Life is built with specific structures that enable it to maintain homeostasis in specific ways.

True. Sweat glands, nerves, etc.

True or False? Homeostasis is a constant challenge for life because the external environment is always  changing. 

True. Temperature, lights, food,  predators, etc.

Hydrophobic region

Between the hydrophilic heads, which is where the tails are

Hydrophilic region

The heads of the phospholipids and  both inside and outside the cell

Channel protein

Tunnels through

Transmembrane protein

channels are transmembrane

 What are the two major types of  transport? (these are the ways cells  get things in and out of our cells)

Passive Transport and Active Transport

 How do passive and active transport differ? 

Passive move substances down a   concentration gradient, naturally, like  diffusion, without energy

Active transport moves substance up a  concentration gradient, so needs to use  energy (ATP)

Define, compare and contrast: simple  

diffusion, facilitated  

diffusion, osmosis. 

Simple = molecules like O₂, CO₂, diffuse directly through the membrane  

Facilitate = molecules like H₂O, which are small & polar, require channel proteins to diffuse through 

Osmosis = facilitated diffusion of only water

What is necessary for active transport to happen?

An energy molecule, like ATP, must be used as power to pump things across a membrane. If  you see “ATP” in an illustration you KNOW it’s talking about active transport.

Why does reproduction exist?

Continuation of the species… so they don’t go exist.

Four types of asexual reproduction. 

Binary fission, fragmentation, budding, parthenogenesis

Differentiate between sexual and asexual  

reproduction. 

	Pros		Cons
Asexual	Easier, efficient		Everyone’s identical
Sexual	Genetic diversity (meiosis)		Takes a lot of energy

Differentiate between haploid and diploid.

Haploid = one copy of the chromosomes and genes  

Diploid = two copies (homologous pairs)

Use the terms [haploid, diploid, gamete,  germ cell, zygote, fertilization, meiosis] to  describe the process of reproduction. 

Diploid germ cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid gametes in each parent,  which fuse during fertilization to produce a diploid gamete (genetic hybrid of the  parents)

How does meiosis contribute to genetic  variation? (there are three ways)

Crossing over shuffles up homologous pairs, independent assortment ensures alleles  have 50/50 chances of being inherited, random fertilization

What is the primary function of DNA? 

To store genetic information (the nucleotide sequences in DNA determine the order of nucleotides in  mRNA sequences, which determine the order of amino acids that form the foundation of the proteins  that make our traits).

Who discovered DNA’s  function?

After the work from many other scientists, Hershey & Chase put it all together and definitively proved  that DNA is the genetic information… it’s function.

Who discovered DNA’s structure?

Again, after the work of many others, Watson and Crick finally put everything together to build a  model of DNA that ended up being the only right one… the double helix we use today.

 What is the building  block of DNA called? What’s constant? What’s variable? 

Nucleotides.  

Constant = the phosphate group and the sugar.  What’s variable is the nitrogen base… based upon  which combination of rings and bonds we’d know  which base was added to the phosphate-ribose and  could label the nucleotide A, T, C, or G.

What is Chargaff’s rule?

He found that there was a constant ratio of nucleotides that form the logic for the pairs we use  today… As with Ts, Cs with Gs… because the percentages were always the same.

What are the three ways RNA is different from DNA?

mRNA is single stranded by nature. mRNA contains ribose instead of deoxyribose… OOOOhhh. Super exciting I know. But  hey. DNA is named because of the deoxyribo. So RNA is named because of ribo. Most impactful… RNA uses the nucleotide uracil in the place of thymine. That matters  when we model translation.

True or False? DNA is stuck in the nucleus, but mRNA can travel between the nucleus and the cytoplasm?

True! That’s it’s benefit!

What is the “Central Dogma of  Biology”? 

DNA🡪mRNA🡪protein. This outlines the basic sequence of events all life takes when  traits (proteins) are manifested from their DNA recipes.

How does the “Central Dogma of Biology” relate to “Gene  Expression”? 

DNA🡪mRNA = transcription  

mRNA🡪protein = translation… these two steps are gene expression

What’s a codon?

DNA is first copied into an mRNA transcript. The grouping of 3-nucleotides in mRNA are  codons. It’s these that are applied to the codon charts we used (these codons are also  combined with tRNA to get the amino acid sequence in proteins correct)

Where does the gene start and stop within  this DNA sequence?

GCTACTTGGCCGATCGTATCTACC

CGTACTTGGCCGATCGTATCTAGC

What mRNA would be copied out of this gene? TACTTGGCCGATCGTATC

AUGAACCGGCUAGCAUAG

How does the DNA compare between  all the cells in your body & why? 

THE DNA IS EXACTLY THE SAME IN EVERY CELL OF YOUR BODY. IT’S THIS WAY BECAUSE  OF MITOSIS. MITOSIS CREATES GENETICALLY IDENTICAL OFFSPRING.

How does the mRNA compare between all the cells  in your body & why? 

THE mRNA IN YOUR CELLS WILL ONLY BE SPECIFIC TO THE GENES BEING  TRANSCRIBED. ONLY THOSE NEEDED WILL BE MADE. IT WILL BE DIFFERENT

 What are the three types of mutations?

POINT MUTATIONS CHANGE DNA INTO A DIFFERENCE BASE (SOMETIMES  CALLED SUBSTITUTIONS.

INSERTIONS ADD IN NUCLEOTIDES THAT OTHERWISE WEREN’T THERE. IT  CAN BUMP THE ENTIRE FRAME DOWN ONE NUCLEOTIDE.

DELETIONS TAKE NUCLEOTIDES OUT. THESE CAN BUMP THE SEQUENCE UP  IN THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION.

What ultimately determines the affect or impact of  a mutation? Why are they studied? 

THE MOST IMPACTFUL MUTATIONS ARE THOSE THAT CHANGE THE MOST  AMINO ACIDS COMPARED TO THE ORIGINAL.

Who was the father of  

genetics? What did he work  on? What did he discover?

Gregor Mendel discovered basic inheritance patterns based upon studying offspring produced in  pea plant breeding though mathematical analysis. He was the first to really define though  mathematics what was suspected.

Compare and contrast  alleles & genes.

Genes are spots on chromosomes… locations. They are place holders for sequences of DNA, which  spell out the directions for traits. Different spellings (or versions) can exist in these spaces, called  alleles.

Compare and contrast  genotype and phenotype.

The genotype is the combination of alleles inherited by offspring. (either two of the same or two  different ones). This combination, based upon the interaction between the alleles determines  phenotype.

What does it mean if a trait is Mendelian? There are  three main criteria. List these.

1 Trait (or characteristic) that is independent (isolated from other  traits)… it has two versions (two alleles), one version is dominant  over the recessive version.

 Obviously, “Exceptions” means it’s not Mendelian. There  are 4 major types of “Non-Mendelian” traits. What are those 4  types? Make sure to review these so you know what each means.  You don’t need to give examples on the quiz, but you do need to  be aware of these and be able to identify these out of a list.

Codominance (how traits can show up at the same time)  Incomplete dominance (how traits blend)  

Polygenic (one characteristic requires many genes… like height)  Multiple alleles (more than just two versions… eyes, hair)