Liberalism: human nature, the state, society and economy

Roots of liberalism

Reformation and enlightenment

liberalism and the reformation

encouraged Christianity to take on a more individualistic culture with each person having an individual relationship with god not priests

liberalism and the enlightenment

extended religious ideas from the reformation to the political and secular world by encouraging rationality and free thinking rather than religion

father of liberalism

John Locke

radical ideas put forth by Locke

• everyone has ability to think freely

• life should be determined by your own judgements

• relationship between individuals and governments needs to be re-examined in a way that improves the status of individuals

Mechanistic theory

argues human beings are rational and can build a state that reflects their own needs, rejects ideas like the divine right of kings

ideas about society before locke

• natural form of government was autocratic

• autocratic ruler had been appointed by god

• monarch’s wishes should therefore be automatically accepted

state of nature

notion of what life was like before the emergence of a state

limited government

the state should be limited in what it can do and how it can do it by a formal constitution

egotistical individualism

liberal belief that human beings are naturally drawn to the advancement of their own selfish interests

natural rights

• life

• liberty

• pursuit of self fulfilment

Humans have these rights in the state of nature so it is a state’s job to uphold them

what does every individual seek according to liberals

• self realisation

• self determination

• self fulfilment

what happens when the three ‘selfs’ are denied

humans are left demoralised and feeling like they had wasted their lives

self realisation

discovery of true self

self determination

mastery of our own fate

self fulfilment

making the most of unique talents

female liberal arguments about equality

thinkers like Freidan and Wollstonecraft argued that men and women had the same desires to self fulfilment and determination

Liberal views on human nature

• egotistical

• rational

• progressive

• Optimistic

Who are the classical liberals

Locke

Wollstonecraft

John Stuart Mill

Modern liberals

Rawls, Freidan, TH Green

critics of liberal views on egotism

it leads to selfishness and endless conflict between individuals

rational view of human nature

we may be egotistical but we are also rational so guided by reason and logic rather than impulse

how can rationality stop egotism hurting others

it allows us to realise when our selfishness towards others comes to disadvantage us

progressive view of human nature

not set in stone, is constantly progressing and developing through greater knowledge

developmental individualism

idea that we should focus on what individuals could become as we are constantly progressing

optimistic view of human nature

believe in rationality and improvability so they are optimistic about human nature and reject the idea of original sin

original sin

old testament doctrine which insists that humanity is innately flawed and inclined to fail

example of liberal optimism in action

Obama’s '2008 presidential campaign slogan ‘yes we can!’

liberal view of society

• natural

• individualistic

• tolerant

John Rawls definition of society

society is the peaceful voluntary interaction of multiple individuals

does society need a state

no, society predates the state as human nature is respectful and fundamentally decent

what was society like before the establishment of a state

agreeable and generally efficient and not something we should automatically wish to end

what is a legitimate society

one where the maximum number of individuals can pursue self realisation and self determination

main job of liberal politicians according to JS Mill

create the conditions for an individualistic society

Women and individualistic society

natural rights were being withheld from women which conflicts with liberal ideas of individualism

people of concern when it comes to supporting individualism

individuals with minority or underrepresented characteristics because liberalism prioritises individual rights from majority tyranny to ensure all people can flourish freely regardless of their identity

minorities supported by liberal thinkers

• Locke championed the rights of religious non conformists in 17th century England

• Wollstonecraft championed rights of women in 18th century England

• Freidan backed women seeking professional careers in 1960s America

what does individualism involve

Maximising the amount of individuals achieving self determination, fulfilment and realisation

tolerance/harm principle

JS Mill, views and actions that we dislike should still be tolerated as long as they don’t harm the liberty of others

Liberal quote misattributed to Voltaire

‘I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it’

tolerance and individualism

TH Green said that individuals will be drawn to and rely on societies that tolerate their individualism

Why are liberals concerned about tolerance for minorities?

Because protecting people with minority views or characteristics is key to individual freedom.

Why isn’t tolerance always simple for liberals?

Because some minority views may be illiberal, or different minority groups may have conflicting demands.

How do liberals usually explain intolerance or rejection of liberal values?

They believe it often comes from ignorance or misunderstanding.

What was J.S. Mill’s solution to social disagreement and intolerance?

He believed education and open discussion would lead to consensus and greater tolerance.

Why is education important in liberalism, according to Mill?

It helps reconcile minority interests with those of the majority and with other minorities.

comparison of liberal view of society with other ideologies

socialists also think society is natural and predates the state but instead of being defined by individualism it is fraternal and cooperative

Conservatives reject the idea of a natural society, arguing it is dependent on the existence of a strong state

liberal view of the economy

• defence of private property

• defence of capitalism

• defence of inequality

Liberalism and private property

property is a natural right which predates the existence of a state and facilitates individualism, it is a crucial vehicle for

Why can property help defend other natural rights

when property is owned by a multitude of individuals, it offers protection against concentrated power and rulers who threaten natural rights

liberalism and capitalism

First liberal economist

Adam Smith who extolled free trade and free markets

why do liberals support capitalism

Because it protects individual freedom, private property, and free trade — all central to liberal values.

Keynesianism

form of capitalism that involves the state directing and managing market forces to ensure steady growth, full employment and therefore greater individual liberty

How does liberalism’s optimistic view of human nature support capitalism?

Liberals believe people are rational and will make good choices to help themselves and others if given freedom under capitalism.

How do liberals believe rational self-interest supports capitalism?

They think individuals make good choices that drive innovation and economic progress when they are free to act.

How does capitalism reflect liberals’ belief in meritocracy?

Liberals believe people should succeed through talent and effort, and capitalism rewards hard work and innovation.

what does capitalism produce

inequality of outcome which liberals are fine with

why do liberals defend inequality of outcome

• individual wealth and economic success will eventually trickle down to the majority

• Unequal outcomes are consistent with a meritocratic society (mill)

Meritocratic society

one that encourages individualism and rewards those who have earned their advantages

Rawls on inequality of outcome

liberals should only defend it if it is accompanied by equality of opportunity

what do liberals disagree about over the economy

what type of capitalism is best for liberty and prosperity, classical liberals favoured laissez faire capitalism but modern liberals liked Keynesian capitalism

comparing ideas of other ideologies about the economy

new right conservatives agree with defence of inequality of outcome but socialists are more concerned with equality of outcome

Liberal view of the foundations of the state

• reject anarchism

• rejection of pre enlightenment states

• contractual state

Liberal view of the objectives of the state

• should promote natural rights

• should promote tolerance

Rejection of anarchism

anarchism also promotes individualism however what makes liberalism different is its belief that self fulfilment, determination and realisation are best served by the existence of a state rather than anarchy

State and anarchy

don’t believe that any state is better than anarchy, it must ensure that it is better than the conditions experienced in the state of nature to be valid

social contract

the state should be a deal between government and the governed, where the governed only defer to the government if it ensures the protection of natural rights, Locke idea

why do liberals reject any form of pre enlightenment states

because they believe in social contracts and consent

why were pre enlightenment states unacceptable for liberals

they were morally illegitimate as they were unlikely to respect natural rights and intellectually illegitimate as they are an affront to rationality

Contractual state

liberals support government by consent, the state only has legitimacy if those under its jurisdiction agree to it

are liberals subjects or citizens

citizens who have ultimate control over those who govern

Locke quote about the contractual state

‘government should always be the servant, not master, of the people’

when will people opt out of the state of nature and contract into a formal state

if they are promised advantages in return

when is it permissible to overthrow the state

if the advantages above and beyond the state of nature stop then citizens are able to declare the government illegitimate and end the contract

social contract example

1776 US Declaration of independence which stated that when a government becomes tyrannical ‘it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it’

Objectives of the state within liberalism

promotion of natural rights

equal opportunities and unequal outcomes

promotion of tolerance

main objective of a liberal state

to improve upon rights that individuals enjoyed in the state of nature

example of a document that upholds natural rights

the US constitution ‘life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness’

state sponsored individualism

a term used by Rawls to set liberalism apart from the stateless individualism of anarchy

in what circumstance can a liberal state be better than the state of nature

state of nature would still involve occasional clashes of self interest which would take a long time to resolve through informal compromises, a liberal state could offer faster methods of resolution like independent courts

foundational equality

belief that all individuals are born equal and are therefore entitled to equal treatment by the state

classical liberal view of how state can promote tolerance

laws that make blatant forms of intolerance illegal and education

modern liberal view on how state can promote tolerance

only the state can ensure the universal education required by a tolerant society and role of the state should be expanded further to illegalise racial and sexual discrimination

liberal structures of the state

• should be limited by a constitution

• should be fragmented

• should be representative

• should be meritocratic

limited state

states power should be limited by preconditions of government and procedures and methods agreed during social contract

preconditions of government

terms which governed initially give their consent to be governed

constitution

the rule book of liberal states that enshrines foundational equality into it

who believed state should be fragmented

Locke

why did Locke think the state should be fragmented

it was a reaction to pre enlightenment states where power was concentrated into the hands of an absolute monarchy

dispersed state power and optimistic view of human nature

if individuals are general rational and inclined to peaceful self determination then it makes sense to empower as many people as possible

example of liberal belief in fragmented government in practice

US constitution which gave separation of powers and system of checks and balances to prevent concentration of power

quote that shows government by consent

'no taxation without representation’ quote from the american revolutionaries

representative state

as state derives its power from citizens then it has to be representative of the citizens it serves so a liberal state will always have representative bodies like parliaments

Betty Freidan on paternalism

liberalism should always reject conservative idea of a paternalistic state where governments feel a quasi parental obligation to look after citizens and demand legislatures that respect citizens own interests

meritocratic state

governed by those who have earned rather than inherited their authority

Why is the relationship between liberalism and democracy complex?

Because while liberalism supports consent of the governed, it also prioritises natural rights, which democracy might not always protect.

Why might liberals be cautious about democracy?

Because majority rule can threaten the rights of minorities and go against core liberal values like individuality and tolerance.

What did John Locke say about universal suffrage?

He opposed giving the vote to those without property, fearing it could threaten property rights.

Why did J.S. Mill fear giving the vote to everyone?

He worried uneducated voters might support intolerant policies that suppress individuality and minority rights.