UBC Biol 111 Final

With Dr. Norman! Just includes the ecology chapter

Proximate causes

Short-term/immediate drivers of a trait or behaviour, could be physiology, genetics, or environmental factors

Ultimate causes

Long-term/large-scale drivers of a trait or a behaviour, could be fitness, evolution, phylogeny

Tinbergen’s Four Questions

1. What is the mechanism that produces a behaviour?

2. How does a behaviour develop?

3. What is the utility of a behaviour?

4. How did the behavior evolve through time?

Fight, Flight, Feeding/Foraging, reproduction

The Four “Fs”, motivators for behaviors and precesses across species (related to hypothalamus function in vertebrates)

Subdisciplines of animal behaviour

Cognition, sociality, communication, movement

Conspecific

How animals interact with each other in the same species

Interspecifics

How animals interact with each other between species

Ethogram

A method to observe animals by systematically record behaviors being displayed, requires direct observation. Behaviors often categorized hierarchically, includes timing/duration of behaviors to create time budget, can be difficult to analyze statistically

Animal behavior

how (non-human) animals act/respond to their surroundings

Ethology

The study of animal behavior

Radiocollars/Telemetry

Allow us to track individuals, estimate range sizes, monitor interactions, record other info. Requires trapping or darting, often sedation. Can be stressful but the data is some of the most robust.

Visual/Acoustic Recording

Relatively inexpensive/remove methods for behavioral analysis, camera traps to take photo/video when motion triggered.

Scat/Fur Analysis

Collected by walking transects, locating latrine sites/rubbing landmarks, or setting fur traps. Dissect to identify high-level diet, note freshness for occupancy, also genetics

Necropsy

Dissecting dead animals to learn about: what they ate, how healthy, contribution to death, genetic information, logistically complicated and biohazards

Protected areas, legislation, rewilding, education, coexistence, global change

Conservation as a practical application for animal behaviour include designing effective _________ _____ for how animals move, acquire reources, and interact. ___________ around hunting, trade, and testing relies on knowing what limits are sustainable. _________ to reintroduce species to areas they once occupied. _________ people how to safely interact with animals. Conflict between people and animals can be reduced through ___________. ______ ______ as ecosystems are changing, understanding how wildlife might react is important.

Ecosystem

A biotic community and its abiotic environment. May be small (e.g. puddle) or large (e.g. Great bear rainforest). May be terrestrial (land-based), aquatic (marine or freshwater), or both

Producers/autotrophs

Produce their own energy by using the energy of sunlight to make chemical energy (glucose) using carbon dioxide as a carbon source and water (photosynthesis)

Dentritivores and decomposers

Two types of consumers that eat dead organic material

Dentritivores

Ingest dead organic material, break down material internally into smaller pieces (earthworks, slugs)

Decomposers

Break down dead organic material, then absorb nutrients (e.g. fungi and some bacteria)

Trophic levels

Feeding groups based on their source of energy

Primary (1) consumers

Herbivores

Food chain

A diagram that shows the linear flow of food energy from one trophic level to the next trophic level

Food webs

More realistic than food chain, a series of interlocked food chains that allow for the omnivores

Omnivores

Consumers of multiple trophic levels

10

Approximately __% of the chemical energy at one trophic level is transferred to the next trophic level

Biomass pyramid

Due to energy loss, it takes MANY producers to support only a few tertiary consumers

Increase

What would happen to the population size of producers if a predator of a tertiary consumer is introduced?

Depends if the producer used to be competitor with other producers

What would happen to the population size of a tertiary consumer if one of the producers all died of disease?

Decrease as the secondary consumer would increase and increase predation

What would happen to the biomass of a primary consumer if the tertiary consumer is removed?

Nitrogen

Essential nutrient that is required for survival and growth of all living organisms largely stored in atmosphere

Nitrogen fixation

A process where N2 is converted into NH3 - a biologically available form by bacteria

Nitrogen, food chain

Plants eaten by primary consumers - ________ forms part of consumer tissues… then passed along ____ _____

Denitrification

A process that converts nitrates to nitrogen gas, also involves bacteria, how nitrogen return to the atmosphere

Eutrophication

Process in which a water body becomes overly enriched with nutrients, such as nitrogen

algae, sea grasses, died, manatees, decreased diversity

Eutrophication of coastal areas has lead to _____ blooms, it blocks sunlight from reaching the ___ ______, with insufficient light for photosynthesis, they ____. ________, are starving to death as a result. Overall, this has led to _________ _________.

Producers, die, decomposers, oxygen, die

Excess growth of _________ due to increased nitrogen availability, they will ultimately ___ at the end of their lifespan. ___________ will consume the dead plants and algae, using lots of ______, fish and other animals run out of it and ___.

abiotic (non-living), select, filtered out, populations, filter, community, effects, living organisms, survival, performance

In ecology, environmental filters are the _______ conditions in a habitat
that “______” for species capable of surviving under those conditions. Species that cannot
tolerate these conditions are “________ ___,” meaning they cannot establish ___________
there, while species that can tolerate them pass through the ______ and become part of the
________. Ecologists assess the potential _____ of environmental filters (such as
temperature, relative humidity, or radiation, among many others) on living organisms and evaluate how these factors influence their ________ and ___________.

The scientific method

Draw on prior knowledge to formualte questions about the world around them, often with the intent of understanding phenomenas or events that remain unknown

hypothesis

Propose potential mechanisms for how and why certain events occur

prediction

goes along the hypothesis, a simple representation of proposed mechanisms

experimental design

strategy for collecting data that could either support or reject their hypothesis

results

analyze for significant difference

conclusions

compare findings with present knowledge and draw this for the relevance and implications of their results

interactions and relationships, species, populations, communities, biome, communities

In ecology, the scientific method is used to understand the ________ ___ _________ that living organisms have with their environment and with other organisms. Ecological questions can focus on organisms at the level of _______, ___________, or _________, and they cover a wide variety of topics. From how a single species influences its _____ to how entire ecosystems support diverse _________.

question, hypothesis, prediction, experimental design, results, conclusions

The order of the scientific method

Ecological gradient

gradual changes in environmental factors and how those factors can shape the fitness, abundance, or diversity of living organisms. Because environmental conditions vary depending on location, ________ _______ can be formulated along elevation, latitude, and longitude.

No competition

No niche overlap

Partial niche overlap

Competition in area of overlap. If species are competitively equal, both experience lower fitness in area of overlap

Interspecific competition

1. Stable coexistence

2. Competitive exclusion

Stable coexistence (niche partitioning)

Species are able to coexist (both remain in the site/habitat), both species give up part of their fundamental niche in order coexist. Use shared, limited resources but in different ways (different locations, times, forage on different sies of prey)

Competitive exclusion

For the strong competitor, the realized niche = the fundamental niche. For weaker competitor, the realized niche is smaller than the fundamental niche. If full niche overlap, competitively excluded from the area.

Consumption

Occurs when one organism eats or absorbs nutrients from another. Positive effect on the consumer’s fitness, negative on victim’s fitness. 3 types: predation, parasitism, herbivory.

Predation

One organism kills and consumes another organism, can promote biodiversity

Parasitism

One organism lives on/in another and steals its nutrients/resources. Parasytes do not kill host.

Herbivory

One organism consumes all or part of a plant

Ecological succession

The species that are present in a community changes over time; new species arrive, and some species leave. Gradually, one community replaces another until a climax community is reaches and/or until a disturbance

Disturbance

An event that disrupts the structure of a community. Take many forms and vary in intensity and size.

Primary succession

Follows a disturbance that was sufficiently extreme to remove all the soil and all living organisms, nothing remains after but bare rock/gravel. Occurs after a new patch of land is formed

Secondary succession

Follows a disturbance that has removed some or all living organisms, but some of the soil remains.

Lichen (no roots), dead, plants, animals, pioneering species, plants, shade intolerant, climax community

Organisms need to start from scratch. ______ attach themselves to rock, remains contribute tot he formation of soil when ____, a few small ______ that don’t require much soil appear, along with a few small _______. The decomposition of __________ _______ contribute to more soil formation and nutrient availability. Larger ______ can colonize the site, they cover and shade, which will restrict the growth of _____ ________ plants. Eventually a ______ _________ is reached, unless/until a disturbance restarts the cycle of succession

Pioneering species

Early species for ecological succession, include plants that don’t require much soil and small animals

secondary succession, soil, nutrients, grass, pioneering, shrubs, climax community

For ___________ _____________, at least some ____ and _______ are still present. _______ and other __________ species will grow, followed by _____ and a variety of tree spcies, until the _____ ________ that existed before the disturbance is present again

Early succession

Abiotic conditions are harsh (no protection from wind, direct sunlight, extremes of temperature, nutrients may or may not be present, but competition is low

Later succession

Abiotic conditions are less harsh but competitors for limited resoruces can be intense.

Ecology

The scientific study of how organisms interact with each other with their environment

1. Describe/quantify the patterns of distribution and abundance of organisms

2. Understand what factors can affect these patterns

Two main goals of ecological research

behavioural, physiological, population, population, species, community, ecosystem

Ecology studied at different levels

1. How do individuals interact with each other and the environment (__________ and/or ____________ mechanisms)

2. How and why do population sizes change over time? what factors affect __________ size/growth/structure?

3. How do ______ interact with each other and what are the consequences for community structure?

4. How do energy and nutrients cycle through an _________?

Patterns of distribution on a global or large scale

Physical and climatic barriers prevent the dispersal of individuals from their place of birth to new geographic locations

Dispersal

The one-way movement of individuals or gametes usually from a site where an individual is born to a new geographic area

Abundance

A measure of the number of individuals of each species in a defined area

Abiotic factors affect patterns of distribution and abundance

Temperature, light intensity, water availability

Biotic factors affect patterns of distribution and abundance

Predation, competition, mutualism

Range of tolerance

The range of abiotic conditions in which an organism can survive and reproduce. Organisms can differ in this

Optimal conditions

Most abundant and high survivability for an organism

Stressful condition

Present but less abundant for an organism

Beyond range of tolerance

Not present for an organism

Distribution

Where individuals are found

The intertidal zone

The part of the marine environment that is uncovered and covered each day as the tide rises and falls. The animals and algae that live in this full time are marine organisms living at the edge of that ecosystem

High intertidal zone

Borders the terrestrial ecosystem; only covered with water when the tide is high; is exposed to the air for most of the day

Mid intertidal zone

Covered with water and uncovered twice per day as the tides rise and fall

Low intertidal zone

Borders on the subtidal zone; only exposed to the air when the tide is low; underwater for most of the day

Low tide

Part or all of the intertidal zone is exposed to terrestrial conditions. Abiotic conditions are suboptimal and potentially lethal depending on range of tolerance

High tide

Most or all of the intertidal zone is exposed to marine conditions (optimal abiotic conditions)

Upper limit of distribution

Abiotic conditions tend to determine the _____ _____ __ ____________ of an intertidal organism

Lower limit of distribution, biotic factors, optimal

The _____ _____ __ ____________ of an intertidal organism tends to be determined by ______ _______ as competition for limited resources is more intense in lcoations where abiotic conditions are more _______

Population

A group of individuals of the same species that live in the same area at the same time

Population size

total number of individuals in a population

Population density

Number of individuals per unit area (or volume)

Density decreased

If the population size of spotted owls decreased by 80%and the available habitat decreased by 60%, what happened to the density of the owl population?

Density increased

If the population size decreased by 80% and the available habitat decreased by 90%, what happened to the density of the owl population?

estimate population size

abundance via sampling

mark-recapture

Visit 1: capture individuals, count and mark them (M), release them

Visit 2: capture individuals (n), some marked (m) some unmarked, count them

Linkoln-Peterson method of mark-recapture estimation

(Number of individuals marked during first visit x number of captured individuals captured for second visit)/total number of individuals marked for the second visit

closed, probability, marks

Assumptions of the linkoln-peterson method:

1. The population is ______

2. Individuals do not differ in their ___________ of being caught

3. Individuals do not lose _____ between sampling periods

Calculating population size at a future time point

N(t+1) = N(t) + B - D + I - E

Per capital birth rate (b)

Absolute number of births / population size (B/N)

Per capital death rate (d)

Absolute number of death / population size (D/N)

per capital growth rate

r = b (per capital birth rate) - d (per capita death rate)

Using r to estimate population size at future time points

N(t+1) = (1+r)N(t)