AP PSYCH UNIT 2

Closure

The Gestalt principle that we tend to fill in missing parts of an image to perceive it as a complete, whole object

Figure-Ground

The ability to distinguish an object (figure) from its surrounding background

Proximity

The Gestalt principle that objects close together are perceived as belonging together

Similarity

The Gestalt principle that similar objects are grouped together perceptually

Bottom-Up Processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s interpretation of sensory information

Top-Down Processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, such as expectations and experiences

Change Blindness

Failure to notice changes in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere

Cocktail Party Effect

The ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment

Inattentional Blindness

Failure to notice visible objects when attention is focused on something else

Schema

A cognitive framework that organizes and interprets information

Selective Attention

The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive stimuli in a particular way based on expectations

Autokinetic Effect

The illusion of movement created when a stationary point of light is viewed in complete darkness

Perceptual Constancy

The ability to perceive objects as stable despite changes in sensory input

Phi Phenomenon

The illusion of movement created when lights flash in sequence

Stroboscopic Movement

The perception of continuous motion produced by rapid succession of still images

Convergence

A binocular depth cue involving the inward turning of the eyes when focusing on close objects

Interposition

A monocular depth cue in which one object partially blocks another, signaling depth

Linear Perspective

A monocular depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge with distance

Relative Clarity

A monocular depth cue where distant objects appear hazier than closer ones

Relative Size

A monocular depth cue where smaller retinal images are perceived as farther away

Retinal Disparity

A binocular depth cue based on the difference between images seen by each eye

Texture Gradient

A monocular depth cue where texture becomes finer as distance increases

Accommodation

The process by which schemas are modified to incorporate new information

Assimilation

The process of fitting new information into existing schemas

Cognition

The mental activities involved in thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down possibilities to find a single correct answer

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

Divergent Thinking

The ability to generate multiple, unique solutions to a problem

Functional Fixedness

The tendency to think of objects only in terms of their typical use

Mental Set

A tendency to approach problems using strategies that have worked in the past

Prototype

The best or most typical example of a category

Algorithm

A step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on how easily examples come to mind

Executive Functions

Higher-order cognitive processes such as planning, decision-making, and impulse control

Framing

The way information is presented, which can influence decisions and judgments

Gambler’s Fallacy

The false belief that random events are influenced by previous outcomes

Heuristic

A mental shortcut that allows for quick judgments

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory before carrying out a task

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of an event based on how closely it matches a prototype

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing a behavior because of previously invested resources

Echoic Memory

A brief sensory memory of auditory stimuli

Episodic Memory

Memory of personally experienced events

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled

Iconic Memory

A brief sensory memory of visual stimuli

Implicit Memory

Memory that influences behavior without conscious awareness

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memory

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and actions

Prospective Memory

Memory to perform planned actions in the future

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts and general knowledge

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information

Short-Term Memory

Activated memory that holds information briefly before storage or decay

Working Memory

A system for temporarily holding and manipulating information

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information

Central Executive

The component of working memory that directs attention and coordinates tasks

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval

Phonemic Processing

Encoding of sound structures of words

Phonological Loop

The working memory system that processes verbal and auditory information

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time

Structural Processing

Encoding based on the physical structure of words

Visuospatial Sketchpad

The working memory system that processes visual and spatial information

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory

Long-Term Potentiation

A lasting increase in synaptic strength following repeated stimulation

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information

Semantic Processing

Encoding based on the meaning of words

Chunking

Organizing information into manageable units

Distributed Practice

Studying material over spaced intervals

Massed Practice

Studying material in one long session

Method of Loci

A mnemonic using visualization of familiar locations

Mnemonic Device

A memory aid that helps organize information

Primacy Effect

The tendency to remember information at the beginning of a list

Recency Effect

The tendency to remember information at the end of a list

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best

Spacing Effect

The tendency to learn better when studying is spread out over time

Alzheimer’s Disease

A progressive neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories

Elaborative Rehearsal

Encoding by linking new information to existing knowledge

Flashbulb Memory

A vivid, emotionally charged memory of a significant event

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory

An exceptional ability to recall personal life events

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall early childhood memories

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition of information to keep it in short-term memory

Memory Consolidation

The process of stabilizing memories after learning

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before an injury

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when the environment matches the learning context

Meta Cognition

Thinking about one’s own thinking and learning processes

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall of information that matches one’s current mood

Recall

Retrieval of information without cues

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help retrieve information from memory

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when internal states match learning conditions

Testing Effect

Improved memory through repeated testing

Encoding Failure

Failure to transfer information into long-term memory

Imagination Inflation

Increased confidence in false memories due to imagination

Memory Construction

The process of assembling memories, sometimes inaccurately

Misinformation Effect

The incorporation of misleading information into memory

Proactive Interference

Old information interfering with new learning

Repression

The exclusion of distressing memories from conscious awareness

Retroactive Interference

New information interfering with old memories