Intro to Psychology Final

Why is retrieval-based learning important?

The feeling of it making sense when rereading notes does not actually assess the abilities of the student. With retrieval-based learning, it internalizes the information.

Retrieval-based learning is enhanced by

Feedback

Cramming

Learning without remembering

Examples of real brain breaks

• Walking

• Listening to classical music

• Sleeping

True or False: studying a different subject while studying another subject can help the overall growth of the material

True— this is because diversifying connections across subjects actually helps memorization and internalization of the material. It enriches content because you are fundamentally thinking about it in a different way

Critical thinking requires

Background knowledge

The spacing effect

Distributed study leads to improved retention (also called the “practice effect” or “distributed learning effect”)

Types of repetition

• Massed

• Distributed

What is massed repetition?

Repeated presentations that occur closely together in time (“cramming”)

What is distributed repetition?

Repeated presentations that are spread out over time

Two factors in determining the effect of spaced repetitions on long-term retention

• Study interval (SI)

  • Amount of time between repeated study sessions

• Retention interval (RI)

  • Time between the last study session and the test

Psychology

The field of study concerned with the mind

Psychological Science

The science through empirical research of mind, brain, and behavior. Covers internal mental and physiological, processes and experiences, as well as external observable behavior. It is based on objective, verifiable, scientific evidence. NOT about mental disorders and therapy

Mind

Mental activity

Mental Activity

What the brain does

Behavior

Describes all observable action (both voluntary and involuntary)

Critical Thinking

Systematically questioning and evaluating ideas, information, and arguments using well-supported evidence. Also enhanced through self-awareness of our own biases: confirmation bias, hindsight bias, reliance on heuristics (mental shortcuts), etc.

1879— the first psychology labratory (Wilhelm Wundt born in Leipzig, Germany)

• Structuralism (and introspection)

• Functionalism (James)

• Psychoanalytical psychology (Freud)

• Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner)

  The cognitive revolution

Subfields of contemporary psychology

• Biological psychology (neuroscience)

• Cognitive psychology (& cognitive neuroscience)

• Behavioral psychologists

• Social psychology

• Personality psychology

• Developmental psychology (social, cognitive, biological, perspectives)

• Clinical psychology

Evolutionary psychology

An approach to all psychology (not a subfield)

Types of psychology can be divided into two categories

• Basic

• Applied

Basic Psychology

• Focus on theory and building basic knowledge

  • behavioral

  • cognitive

  • biological

  • developmental

  • evolutionary

  • personality

  • social

Applied Psychology

• Focus on solving real-world problems

  • clinical

  • counseling

  • educational

  • forensic

  • health

  • I / O

  • school

  • sports

How to think about psychology?

Integration

Neuroscience

How the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences

Evolutionary

How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes

Behavior Genetics

How our genes and our environment influence our individual differences

Psychodynamic

How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts

Behavioral

How we learn observable responses

Cognitive

How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Socio-cultural

How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures

The principle of consilience

The natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities together represent a single continuous fabric of understanding about ourselves and the natural world

How do psychologists develop new knowledge?

• Empirical investigation

• Scientific method

Empirical investigation

An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data (you need to look)

Scientific method

Multi-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control bias and subjective judgement (how to look)

The seven steps of the scientific method

1. research question

2. literature review

3. hypothesis

4. design study

5. conduct study

6. analyze data

7. report results

1. Example of pointed research question

Which is more effective: rereading or practice testing?

2. Questions to ask when reviewing literature

• based on existing research, what do we already know?

• which theories are relevant?

3. What is a hypothesis?

A statement that predicts the outcome of a scientific study

Operational definitions

A clear statement that defines (describes and quantifies) how a variable is defined so it can be studied objectively

4. Design study

• Independent variable: manipulated by the experimenter

• Dependent variable: the measured outcome of a study; the responses given by participants

5. Conduct study

• Random sampler: the sample fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

• Random assignment: using chance to assign people to condition, to minimize differences between groups

What are control groups?

The group not exposed to a treatment or manipulation (or exposed to an alternative manipulation)

What are confounding variables?

A “third” or “extraneous” variable (other than the IV) that might affect a study’s results

*random assignment helps to prevent this!

Analyze data

Based on statistical analysis of the data, the hypothesis is either supported or not supported

*psychological scientists avoid saying “proved” or “disproved”

Experiments (the “gold standard”)

• Must have at least two groups or conditions

• Strength: determines cause and effect

• Weakness: unrealistic

Random sample

the sample fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Random assignment

using chance to assign people to condition, so as to minimize differences between groups

Correlation Studies

• Describe and predict

  • research often involves self-report methods (questionnaires, surveys, etc.)

• Strength: allows study of topics that are hard (or ethically inappropriate) to approach with experiments

Weakness: asking good questions us hard and correlations cannot determine cause and effect correlation does not = causation

Types of Correlations

• perfect negative

• medium negative

• no correlation

• medium positive

• perfect positive

Observational research

• Naturalistic observations

• Watching without interfering (behavior “in the wild”)

  • Ex. speed dating, shopping behavior, food consumption

• Strength: real world behavior

• Weakness: loss of control over other variables that might affect interpretation of data; observations describe, not explain

Case Studies

In-depth detailed investigation of a single individual, group, event, or community, gathering information from various sources like interviews, observations, and tests to provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon in its natural context.

• Strength: special cases / circumstances may yield unique insights

• Weakness: results may not be typical of other/most people (results may not generalize); the plural of anecdote us not data

Types of Psychological Research

• Experiments

• Correlational Studies

• Naturalistic Observations

• Case Studies

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s)

Mean

The avergae (sum of all scores divided by the number of scores)

Median

The 50th percentile (i.e. the midpoint of all scores)

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores

Standard Deviation

How much scores tend to deviate from the mean (average); two data sets can have the same average, but very different standard deviations

Descriptive Statistics

• Describe

• Measures of central tendency and variability are all descriptive stats

Inferential Statistics

• Used to draw conclusions (inferences) about a larger population by looking at statistically significant differences between groups or condition

• Effect size: is used to provide a better estimate of practical significance

Consilience*

Linking of facts and fact-based theory across disiplines to create a common groundwork of explanation

Nervous system

Network of neurons that extend throughout the body

Neurons

are the fundamental unit of communication in the brain

Endocrine system

A group of glands that operate together and in parallel with the nervous system

Hormones

Are the fundamental communication used by the endocrine system

Nucleus

Cytoplasm

Axon

Dendrites

receive signals from other neurons, carry incoming messages. toward the cell body

Soma

(cell body) contains the nucleus, integrates incoming signals and supports the neuron’s health and function

Myelin Sheath

fatty layer that insulates the axon, speeds up the transmission of electrical signals

Terminal Buttons

Synapses

chemical communication

Action Potential

Over the Counter (OTC) Pain Treatments

• Local anesthetic drugs block sodium channels and therefore prevent action potentials from transmitting sensory signals

• Ex. of drugs that work this way: novocaine (procaine), xylocaine (lidocane), benzocaine (for sunburns or toothaches), pramoxine (neosporin)

Pain

An interpretation the brain makes, so when you use a pain reliever, you are blocking the pain of the brain, not necessarily the ache, bruise, or cut

Caffeine

• Binds to adenosine receptors

• As long as the caffeine binds, the adenosine can’t make you feel tired. However, once the caffeine is gone, the adenosine binds quickly and make you crash

Ritalin

• partially blocks to reuptake of dopamine and norepinephrine

  • pharmacologically, ritalin and cocaine work in similar ways

Adderall and meth

work similarly pharmacologically

Antidepressants partially block the reuptake of serotnin

• They are SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors)

• Dendrites can wither away or grow back

• Axons can wither away or grow back

• Enable new connections in the brain

Other Antidepressants are SNRIs

serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors

Wellbutrin (bupropion) partially blocks the reupake of dopamine

It is an atypical antidepressant and the only one that works of dopamine

SSRIs are serotonin

agonist

Ritalin is a dopamine

agonist

Alcohol is a GABA

agonist

Caffeine is an adenosine

antagonist

Botox is an acetylcholine

antagonist

Alcohol is a glutamate

antagonist

Acetylcholine (ACh)

• enables muscle action, learning, and memory

• with Alzheimer’s disease, ACH-producing neurons deteriorate

Dopamine

• Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion

• Oversupply linked to schizophrenia

• Undersupply lunked to tremors and decreased mobility in Parkinson’s disease

Serotonin

• Affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal

• Some drugs that raise serotonin levels are used to treat depression (but low serotonin levels do not appear to cause depression)

Norepinephrine

• Helps control alertness and arousal

• Undersupply can depress mood

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

• major inhibitory neurotransmitter

• undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Glutamate

• major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory

• Oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines, or seizures

Endorphins

• Neurotransmitters that influence the perception of pain or pleasure

• Oversupply with opioid drugs can suppress the body’s natural endorphin supply

The part of the neuron responsible for carrying the neural message from the cell body to the neighboring neurons is the

Axon

A new drug has a chemical structure very similar to dopamine and stimulates dopamine receptors in the brain. This new drug would be best considered

A dopamine agonist

Nervous System and Neuroanatomy

(copy from book)

Plasticity

ability of the nervous system to adapt or change as the result of experience; underlies growth and potential, and sometimes helps the nervous system adapt to physical damage

What are the divisions within the autonomic nervous system (ANS)

• Sympathetic

• Parasympathetic